Surgical system and method utilizing impulse modeling for controlling an instrument

ABSTRACT

A surgical system for applying an energy applicator to a target tissue and methods operating the same are disclosed. The energy applicator extends from a surgical instrument. The surgical system comprises a sensor to measure external forces and torques placed on the surgical instrument. A surgical manipulator is configured to move the energy applicator in a manual mode in response to the external forces and torques. At least one controller is configured to: model the surgical instrument and the energy applicator as a virtual rigid body having a virtual mass; calculate, using impulse modeling, constraining forces and torques to be applied to the virtual rigid body; determine total forces and torques based on the external forces and torques and the constraining forces and torques; and advance the energy applicator in the manual mode based on the total forces and torques.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.16/262,375 filed Jan. 30, 2019, which is a continuation of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 15/266,691, filed Sep. 15, 2016, which is acontinuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/958,834, filed Aug.5, 2013, which claims the benefit of U.S. provisional patent applicationNo. 61/679,258, filed on Aug. 3, 2012, and U.S. provisional patentapplication No. 61/792,251, filed on Mar. 15, 2013, the advantages anddisclosures of each of these applications are hereby incorporated byreference in their entirety.

FIELD

This invention relates generally to a surgical system and method forcontrolling an instrument. More particularly, this invention relates toa surgical system and method utilizing impulse modeling to control theinstrument.

BACKGROUND

Recently, medical practitioners have found it useful to use roboticdevices to assist in the performance of surgical procedures. A roboticdevice typically includes a moveable arm that comprises one or morelinkages. The arm has a free, distal end that can be placed with a veryhigh degree of accuracy. A surgical instrument designed to be applied tothe surgical site is attached to the free end of the arm. Thepractitioner is able to precisely position the arm so as to byextrapolation, precisely position the surgical instrument at the site onthe patient at which the instrument is to perform a medical or surgicalprocedure. One advantage of using a robotic system to hold theinstrument is that the system arm, unlike the arms and hands of asurgeon, are not subjected to muscle strain or neurological actions liketwitching. Thus, in comparison to when an instrument is hand held andtherefore hand positioned, using a medical robotic system it is possibleto hold an instrument steady, or move the instrument along a definedpath with a higher degree of accuracy.

Further some robotic surgical systems are designed to be used withsurgical navigation systems. A surgical navigation system is a systemthat is able to generate data that provides a relatively preciseindication of the surgical instrument relative to the location of thepatient against which the instrument is applied. When a surgical roboticsystem is provided with the data indicating the position of theinstrument relative to the patient, the robotic system may be able toposition the instrument to ensure that it is applied to the tissue ofthe patient against which the instrument is supposed to be applied. Thissubstantially eliminates the likelihood that the instrument will beapplied to tissue against which the instrument should not be applied.

Some medical robotic systems are designed to work in what is referred toas a “semi-autonomous” mode. In this mode of operation, the roboticsystem actuates the arm so as to cause the instrument to move againstthe patient's tissue in a preprogrammed path. This is useful if, forexample, the instrument is some sort of cutting device and the goal ofthe particular procedure is to remove a pre-defined section of thepatient's tissue. By way of reference, if a robotic system operates inan “autonomous” mode of operation, the robot, once actuated, performsthe procedure with essentially no input from the surgeon. In a“semi-autonomous” mode of operation, the practitioner is able to assertcommands to control the operation of the robot. For example, somesemi-autonomous robots are constructed so that, in order for the robotto displace the instrument, the practitioner must actuate a command bycontinually depressing a control button or switch associated with therobot. Upon the negation of the actuate command by the practitioner, theadvancement of the instrument by the robot at least temporarily stops.

Some robotic systems are not traditional robots in that once activated,they do not automatically move the attached instrument along apre-programmed path of travel. These systems include control systemsthrough which the practitioner enters commands indicating where theattached instrument is to be positioned. Based on thesepractitioner-entered commands, this type of system actuates the system'sarm/arms to cause the essentially simultaneous, real time, movement ofthe instrument. These robotics systems are considered to operate in amanual mode.

To date though, it has been difficult to provide a robotic system ableto, during the performance of a single procedure, switch betweensemi-autonomous and manual modes of operation. For example, it isbelieved that many times a surgeon may want to initially manuallyoperate the instrument in order to remove a large mass of tissue. Thispart of the procedure is sometimes referred to as debulking. Then, toremove tissue to define the surfaces of the remaining tissue, thesurgeon may want the robotic system to semi-autonomously perform finepositioning of the instrument. This part of the procedure is sometimesknown as the finishing cut.

Moreover, there are times when it may be desirable to switch fromsemi-autonomous positioning of the instrument back to manualpositioning. For example, in an orthopedic joint replacement procedure,the practitioner may want the instrument, a cutting tool, to move in aprogrammed path in order to precisely shape the bone to which theinstrument is applied. This precise bone shaping facilitates the precisefitting of the implant to the face of the bone exposed by the cuttingtool. However, there may be a situation in which, after the procedurebegins, it becomes apparent that the instrument may collide with anobject at the surgical site against which such contact is undesirable.This object may be tissue that has moved into the surgical site or asecond instrument positioned at the site. In this situation, it shouldbe possible for the practitioner to momentarily interrupt the programmedmovement of the tool, manually control the tool to reposition theinstrument, and then return the tool to the programmed movement.

SUMMARY

A surgical system for applying an energy applicator to a target tissueis disclosed. The energy applicator extends from a surgical instrument.The surgical system comprises a sensor to measure external forces andtorques placed on the surgical instrument; a surgical manipulatorconfigured to move the energy applicator in a manual mode in response tothe external forces and torques; and at least one controller. The atleast one controller is configured to: model the surgical instrument andthe energy applicator as a virtual rigid body having a virtual mass;calculate, using impulse modeling, constraining forces and torques to beapplied to the virtual rigid body; determine total forces and torquesbased on the external forces and torques and the constraining forces andtorques; and advance the energy applicator in the manual mode based onthe total forces and torques.

A method of operating a surgical system for applying an energyapplicator to a target tissue is disclosed. The energy applicatorextends from a surgical instrument. The surgical system comprises asensor for measuring external forces and torques placed on the surgicalinstrument, a surgical manipulator configured for moving the energyapplicator in a manual mode in response to the external forces andtorques, and at least one controller. The method comprises: modeling,with the at least one controller, the surgical instrument and the energyapplicator as a virtual rigid body having a virtual mass; calculating,with the at least one controller, and using impulse modeling,constraining forces and torques for applying to the virtual rigid body;determining, with the at least one controller, total forces and torquesbased on the external forces and torques and the constraining forces andtorques; and advancing, with the at least one controller, the energyapplicator in the manual mode based on the total forces and torques.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The invention is pointed out with particularity in the claims. The aboveand further features and advantages of this invention are understoodfrom following Detailed Description taken in conjunction with thefollowing drawings in which:

FIG. 1 is an overview of how a manipulator of this invention is used toposition and advance a surgical instrument on a patient;

FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a manipulator of this invention to whichboth a surgical instrument and a navigation tracker are attached;

FIGS. 2A and 2B are, respectively, top and side views of a pendant usedto regulate the operation of the manipulator;

FIG. 3 is front view of the manipulator;

FIG. 4 is a perspective view of the arms of the manipulator;

FIG. 5 is an alternative perspective view of the manipulator arms;

FIG. 6 is a side view of the manipulator arms wherein the lower arm isseen in the foreground;

FIG. 7 is a top view of the manipulator arms;

FIG. 8 is a side view of the end effector and a surgical instrument,here a powered drill, attached to the end effector;

FIG. 9 is a front view of the end effector and attached surgicalinstrument;

FIG. 10 is perspective view of the end effector and attached surgicalinstrument;

FIG. 11 is a block diagram of a number of the processors thatcollectively cooperate to control the actuation of the manipulator andattached surgical instrument;

FIG. 12 is a diagrammatic illustration of the different coordinatesystems associated with the patient and the elements that regulate theactuation of the manipulator;

FIG. 13A through 13E form a block diagram of software modules that arerun to regulate the actuation of the manipulator;

FIG. 14 is a block diagram of the components forming one of the jointactuators;

FIG. 15A is a side view of a bone depicting how tool paths are formed todefine the sections of the bone to which the surgical instrument isapplied;

FIG. 15B is a top view of a bone depicting the arrangement of the toolmaps;

FIG. 15C illustrates how a single tool path may comprises a set of pathsegments of different length and orientation;

FIGS. 16A-16D depict the sub-modules internal to the tool path forcecalculator;

FIG. 17 diagrammatically depicts how a tool path segments are averagedby the rolling average filter;

FIGS. 18A through 18D are a set of diagrammatic depictions of how thepoints and boundaries used by the orientation regulator are generated;

FIG. 19 is a graphical depiction the relationship between the offset ofthe instrument from the target orientation and the force that theorientation regulator determines should be applied to the virtual rigidbody to compensate for the offset;

FIGS. 20A, 20B and 20C are diagrammatic depictions of the energyapplicator repositioning that is performed by the cut guide;

FIGS. 21A, 21B and 21C form a flow chart of the process steps executedby the cut guide;

FIG. 22 is a illustration of how a boundary defining tile closest to theenergy applicator may not be the tile that the applicator will mostlikely intersect,

FIGS. 23A and 23B are diagrammatic depictions of the velocity changesthe instrument and energy applicator undergo as a consequence of the cutguide's prevention of the movement of the energy applicator beyond thedefined boundary;

FIG. 23C is a diagrammatic depiction of the change in position of theinstrument and energy application as a consequence of the cut guide'sprevention of the movement of the energy applicator beyond the definedboundary;

FIG. 24 is a flow chart of the process by which joint limit constrainingforce may be generated;

FIG. 25 is a flow chart of the process by which an interference angleconstraining force may be generated;

FIG. 26 is a flow chart of the process by which a workspace constrainingforce may be generated;

FIG. 27 is a block diagram of the inputs into and output from theinstrument manager;

FIG. 28A-28G collectively form a flow chart of process steps executed bythe manipulator when engaged in semi-autonomous advancement of theinstrument;

FIGS. 29A and 29B are, respectively, top view and side view diagrammaticdepictions of the initial orientation of the instrument when in thesemi-autonomous mode;

FIGS. 30A and 30B are, respectively, top and side view diagrammaticdepictions of how, based on the force and torque commands output by thetool orientation force regulator the manipulator orients the instrumentand energy applicator so the common axis extends through the centeringpoint;

FIG. 31 is a diagrammatic depiction of how, as the energy applicatoradvances along the tool path, based on the force and torque commandsoutput by the tool orientation force regulator, the orientation of thecommon axis is held relatively close to the centering point;

FIGS. 32A, 32B and 32C, are, respectively, top, side and cross sectionviews of how, even with the presence of a obstruction 828 above the toolpath, the manipulator is able to adjust the orientation of theinstrument to hold the energy applicator on the tool path whilemaintaining the common axis within the reference surface aperture;

FIGS. 33A and 33B are, respectively, top and side views of how themanipulator adjusts the orientation of the instrument to hold the energyapplicator on the tool path while maintaining the common axis within thereference surface aperture;

FIG. 33C is a diagrammatic depiction of how, as the energy applicatoradvances along the tool path, based on the force and torque output bythe tool orientation regulator, the orientation of the common axisshifts to maintain the axis in the reference surface aperture.

FIGS. 34A, 34B and 34C are a second set of cross sectional views thatdepict how the position of the orientation reference surface and theaperture defined in the surface are reset during the operation of themanipulator.

FIGS. 35A, 35B, and 35C are a second set of cross section views thatdepict how the position and orientation of the reference surface andaperture defined by in the reference surface are reset during operationof the manipulator; and

FIGS. 36A, 36B and 36C are a sequence of drawings depicting how theboundary defining where the energy applicator is to be applied ismodified during the course of a surgical procedure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION I. Overview

This invention relates generally to a new and useful surgicalmanipulator that positions a surgical instrument or tool on or in thepatient. The surgical manipulator positions the surgical instrument sothat the end of instrument that is to be applied to the tissue is onlyapplied to the tissue to which the instrument should be applied.

The manipulator can be operated in either a manual mode or asemi-autonomous mode. When the manipulator is operated in the manualmode, the manipulator monitors the forces and torques the practitionerplaces on the instrument in order to position the instrument. Theseforces and torques are measured by a sensor that is part of themanipulator. In response to the practitioner applied forces and torques,the manipulator essentially moves the instrument in real time. Themovement of the instrument by the manipulator can therefore beconsidered to be movement of the instrument that emulates the desiredpositioning of the instrument by the practitioner.

When the manipulator is in the manual mode, the manipulator determinesthe relative location of the instrument to a boundary. This boundarydefines the limits of the tissue beyond which the instrument should notbe placed. In the event it appears that the practitioner wants toposition the instrument beyond the boundary, the manipulator does notallow this movement of the instrument. For example, should themanipulator determine that the practitioner's repositioning of theinstrument is resulting in the instrument approaching a boundary whichthe instrument should not cross, the manipulator prevents the instrumentfrom movement beyond the boundary.

The practitioner may continue to attempt to reposition the instrument toa location beyond which the tip should not be applied. The manipulatordoes not move the tip such that the tip is repositioned beyond theboundary. The manipulator does, however, reorient the instrumentaccording to the force detected from the practitioner. This reorientingof the instrument without allowing tip repositioning indicates to thepractitioner that the instrument tip has reached a boundary that shouldnot be crossed. The manipulator still does not respond to move the tipalong the boundary.

When the manipulator is operated in a semi-autonomous mode, themanipulator calculates the forces and torques necessary to move theinstrument along a predefined path of travel. Based on these forces andtorques, the manipulator moves the instrument along the predefined pathof travel.

It is a further feature that the practitioner is able to engage in somemanual adjustment of the position of the instrument while themanipulator moves the instrument during the semi-autonomous operation.One such adjustment is that the practitioner can adjust the orientationof the instrument while the instrument moves along the programmed pathof travel.

In some versions, when the manipulator advances the instrument, it doesso based on a determination of forces and torques that need to beapplied to a virtual rigid body. This virtual rigid body is a model ofthe instrument and the energy applicator. Based on these forces andtorques, the manipulator advances the instrument. When the manipulatoroperates in the manual mode, a component of these forces and torques areforces and torques that, as a consequence of their being applied to thevirtual rigid body, result in the manipulator positioning the instrumentin such a manner that the instrument does not cross the boundary. Whenthe manipulator operates in the semi-autonomous mode, forces and torquesapplied to the virtual rigid body include additional components. Inresponse to the presence of these additional force and torquecomponents, the manipulator advances the instrument so the energyapplicator moves along the predefined tool path.

In some versions, the manipulator includes a number of interconnectedlinks. These links may be connected together in series and/or parallel.In one embodiment of this invention, these links form two parallel fourbar linkages. The instrument is connected to the distal end of thelinks. Generally each pair of adjacent links is connected by a joint.The position of the links is set by actuators associated with thejoints.

FIGS. 1 and 2 illustrate an exemplary manipulator 50 used to apply asurgical instrument 160 to a patient 600. Manipulator 50 includes an endeffector 110 that is the component of the manipulator to which thesurgical instrument 160 is attached. Manipulator 50 positions the endeffector 110 to position and orient the surgical instrument 160 so thatthe instrument performs the intended medical/surgical procedure on thepatient. The manipulator 50 is used in conjunction with a surgicalnavigation system 210. The surgical navigation system 210 monitors theposition of the end effector 110 and the patient 600. Based on thismonitoring, the surgical navigation system 210 determines the positionof the surgical instrument 160 relative to the site on the patient towhich the instrument is applied.

A hand held pendant 190 (FIG. 2A) is also attached to manipulator 50.Pendant 190 is used in some operating modes to regulate operation of themanipulator and instrument 160.

Manipulator 50 of this invention can operate in a manual mode. When themanipulator operates in the manual mode, the manipulator responds to theforces and torques the practitioner places on the instrument 160 toposition the instrument. In response to these forces and torques, themanipulator mechanically moves the instrument in a manner that emulatesthe movement that would have occurred based on the forces and torquesapplied by the practitioner. As the instrument 160 moves, the surgicalmanipulator 50 and surgical navigation system 210 cooperate to determineif the instrument is within a defined boundary. Often, but not always,this boundary is within the patient and beyond which the instrumentshould not be applied. Based on these data, the manipulator 50selectively limits the extent to which the instrument 160 moves.Specifically, the manipulator constrains the manipulator from movementthat would otherwise result in the application of the instrument outsideof the defined boundary. Thus, should the practitioner apply forces andtorques that would result in the advancement of the instrument beyondthe boundary, the manipulator does not emulate this intended positioningof the instrument.

The manipulator 50 can also operate in a semi-autonomous mode. Tooperate the manipulator 50 in this mode, a path of travel along whichthe instrument 160 should be applied to the tissue is generated. Atleast the basic version of this path is generated prior to the start ofthe procedure. Based on these forces and torques, as well as other data,the manipulator generates data describing a commanded pose to which theinstrument should be advanced. (“Pose” is understood to be the positionand orientation of the system component being discussed.) Once thecommanded pose is generated, the manipulator advances the instrument tothat pose. As when in the manual mode, when the instrument is operatedin the semi-autonomous mode, the manipulator does not advance theinstrument 160 beyond the boundary.

II. Hardware

As seen in FIGS. 2 and 3, the manipulator 50 includes a cart 52. Cart 52includes a wheel mounted frame (frame not illustrated). A shell 56 isdisposed over the frame.

Manipulator 50 includes lower and upper arms 68 and 70, respectively.Arms 68 and 70 extend upwardly from shoulders 67 and 69, respectively.The shoulders 67 and 69 are located above cart shell 56. Each shoulder67 and 69 and associate arm 68 and 70, respectively, collectively havethree degrees-of-freedom relative to a horizontal base plane of the cart52. Shoulder 69, the shoulder to which upper arm 70 is mounted, islocated above shoulder 67, the shoulder to which lower arm 68 ismounted. Both shoulders 67 and 69 are rotatably attached to the cartframe. Each shoulder 67 and 69 rotates around an axis that extendsperpendicular to the horizontal base plane of the cart 52. The rotationof each shoulder 67 and 69 results in the like displacement of theassociated arm 68 or 70, respectively. As is apparent below, theshoulders need not always move in unison or have the same end position.The angular position of each shoulder 67 and 69 relative to a referencelocation on the cart 52 is referred to as the joint angle of theshoulder.

As seen in FIGS. 4 and 5, each arm 68 and 70 includes a four barlinkage. In these Figures, the arms are in their nominal home positions.Each arm 68 and 70 includes an upper link 74 that is pivotally mountedto the shoulder 67 or 69. While upper links 74 are able to pivot, inFIGS. 4 and 5 they are shown extending above the shoulders andapproximately perpendicular to the ground plane. A driver link 76 isalso pivotally mounted to shoulder 67 or 69. Driver link 76 is mountedto the shoulder 67 or 69 so as to pivot around the same axis aroundwhich upper link 74 pivots. Each driver link extends rearwardly awayfrom the associated shoulder 67 or 69. (Here, “rearward” is thedirection away from the patient. “Forward” is in the direction oftowards the patient.) In the depicted version, the driver links 76,unlike the other links, are not generally in the form of straight beams.Instead, each driver link 76 is formed with a bend (bend notidentified). The bent shape of the driver links 76 facilitates theclearance of links about the shoulders 67 and 69.

A four bar link 78 is pivotally mounted to the rear free end of eachdriver link 76. Four bar link 78 extends upwardly from the associateddriver link 76 and is generally parallel with the upper link 74. Adriven link 80 is the remaining rigid link of each arm 68 and 70. Eachdriven link 80 has an upper section, not identified, that is pivotallyattached to the free end of the associated proximal four bar link 78.Each driven link 80 is also pivotally attached to the free end of theassociated upper link 74. Each driven link 80 has a forward section, notidentified, that extends outwardly beyond the upper link 74. Owing toshoulders 67 and 69 being of different heights above ground level, thedrive link 80 integral with upper arm 70 is located above the drive linkintegral with lower arm 68.

Each link 74, 76, 78 and 80, like each shoulder 67 and 69, rotates. Theconnection between two links is referred to as a joint. The anglebetween two links is the joint angle of the joint connecting the links.

A rigid coupler 88, also part of the manipulator 50, extends between thedistal ends of the driven links 80. As seen in FIGS. 6 and 7, a wrist 82connects coupler 88 to lower arm driven link 80. Wrist 82 is connectedto the lower arm driven link 80. Wrist 82 is a three degree of freedomwrist. A wrist 84 connects coupler 88 to the distal end of the upper armdriven link 80. Wrist 84 is a two degree of freedom wrist. A descriptionof some of the features of this type of manipulator as well as adescription of an alternative set of links that can be used to positionthe end effector 110 is contained in U.S. Pat. No. 7,950,306,MANIPULATOR, issued May 31, 2011 the contents of which are explicitlyincorporated herein by reference.

Three actuators 92, 94 and 96, one of each shown diagrammatically inFIG. 13D, are associated with each arm 68 and 70. Each actuator 92 ismounted to the cart frame adjacent the shoulder 72 integral with theassociated arm 68 or 70.

Actuators 94 and 96 are mounted in the shoulder 67 or 69 integral withthe associated arm 68 or 70. Actuator 94 is connected to the upper link74 to selectively pivot the upper link. Actuator 96 is connected to thedriver link 76 to pivot the driver link 76. The pivoting of the driverlink 76 results in the displacement of the attached four bar link 78.The movement of the four bar link 78 results in the pivoting of theattached driven link 80. Specifically, the driven link 80 pivots aboutthe axis around which the driven link 80 is attached to the associatedupper link 74. These particular gear assemblies are essentially “zerobacklash” gear assemblies. There is essentially no looseness betweeninterlocking gears. This feature of the gears contributes to theprecision positioning of the shoulders 72 and links 74, 76, 78 and 80.

Arms 68 and 70 and coupler 88 collectively form an over actuatedmechanism. This means the actuation of one link must be accompanied bythe corresponding movement of one or more of the other actuated links.

A number of components are associated with each actuator 92, 94 and 96.FIG. 14 arbitrarily shows the components associated with actuator 94.Specifically, the actuator includes a permanent magnet synchronous motor101 attached to a structural frame 87 internal to the shoulder 67 or 69.The motor 101 is not attached directly to the frame 87. Instead a torquesensor 89 is located between the frame 87 and motor 101.

Associated with the motor 101 is the below described rotary encoder 114.A brake 103 locks rotation of the motor shaft when the motor is notpowered. The locked/unlocked states of the brakes 103 are controlled bythe manipulator controller 124. When the manipulator 50 is powered down,manipulator controller 124 sets the brakes 103 from the unlocked to thelocked state. Thus, when manipulator 50 is powered down, brakes 103 arethe components integral with shoulders 67 and 69 and arms 68 and 70 thatprevent movement of the arms.

A reduction gear 105 converts the rotational movement of the outputshaft of the motor rotor (not illustrated) into rotational moment thatdrives the shoulder 67 or 69 or link 74 or 76 to which the motor isattached. In some versions, the reduction gear is a harmonic gear drive.Output shaft 107 of the reduction gear assembly 105 is shown connectedto upper link 74. In some versions, the motor, the rotary encoder, thebrake and reduction gear assembly are a single unit.

While not shown, integral with each actuator is a transfer gearassembly. The transfer gear assemblies integral with actuators 92comprises the gears that rotate the associated shoulder 67 or 69. Thetransfer gear assemblies integral with actuators 94 comprise the gearsthat pivot the upper links 74. The transfer gear assemblies integralwith actuators 96 comprise the gears that pivot the driver link 76. Thetransfer gear assemblies are essentially “zero backlash” gearassemblies. This means there is essentially no looseness betweeninterlocking gears. This feature of the gear assemblies contributes tothe precise positioning of shoulder 67 and 69 and arms 68 and 70.

Associated with each arm 68 and 70 are three of the above mentionedrotary encoders 112, 114 and 116. One of each shown in FIG. 13D. Eachrotary encoder 112, 114 and 116 is a sensor that monitors the angularposition of one of the three motor driven components of the arm 68 or 70with which the encoder is associated. Rotary encoder 112 monitors therotation of the arm shoulder 67 or 69. Rotary encoder 114 monitors therotation of the arm upper link 74. Rotary encoder 116 monitors therotation of the arm driver link 76.

In the described version, each rotary encoder 112, 114 and 116 monitorsthe rotation of the shaft integral with the motor 101 internal to theassociated actuators 92, 94 and 96, respectively. (Motor shafts notillustrated). The rotation of each actuator motor shaft is directlyproportional to the rotation of the shoulder or arm link driven by themotor. Each rotary encoder 112, 114 and 116 monitors both the extent towhich the rotor of the associated motor shaft is rotated as well as thedirection of rotation (clockwise or counterclockwise).

In other versions, each encoder 112, 114 and 116 monitors the extent ofrotation and rotational direction of one of the gears of the transfergear assembly that connects the motor shaft to the shoulder or arm linkthe motor displaces. There is a first order linear relationship betweenthe degrees of rotation of this gear and the joint angle of the jointset by the associated motor. Alternatively, each encoder 112, 114 and116 is a sensor that directly measures the joint angle of the joint withwhich the sensor is associated.

In some versions, encoders 112, 114 and 116 are absolute encoders. Anabsolute encoder, upon start up of the manipulator 50, generates signalsthat immediately indicate the position of the component (motor rotorshaft or gear shaft) the encoder monitors. In other versions, theencoders are incremental encoders. Upon start up of the manipulator 50,an incremental encoder is set to a zero state. Once set at the zerostate, the incremental encoder provides data indicating the extent towhich the component the encoder monitors is displaced. With this type ofencoder, prior to the use of the manipulator, the arms 68 and 70 may bemoved to a home or zero state position. Once the arms are so moved, theincremental counts maintained by the encoders are zeroed out. After thezeroing processing, the incremental counts output by the motor are usedto provide an inferential indication of the position of the arms 68 and70.

In some versions rotary encoders 112, 114 and 116 are multi-turnabsolute encoders. This type of absolute encoder, after measuring a fullrotation of 360°, outputs a signal indicating that the further presentrotational angle is in addition to the first, or additional 360° ofrotation. For example, when the encoder during the third rotation of theshaft being monitored measures a rotation of 10°, the encoder outputs asignal indicating that the shaft has undergone 730° of rotation.

Manipulator 50 includes two additional encoders, encoder 117 and 118.Encoders 117 and 118 are associated with the driven link 80 integralwith upper arm 70. In FIG. 13D, encoders 117 and 118 are depictedinternal to the upper arm driven link 80. Encoders 117 and 118 generatesignals representative of the angular position of wrist 84 relative tothe upper arm driven link 80. As discussed above, wrist 84 rotates intwo degrees of freedom relative to the adjacent driven link. Eachencoder 117 and 118 generates signals representative of the angularposition of the wrist around one of the axes around which the wristrotates.

The end effector 110 is rigidly attached to coupler 88. In someversions, the end effector is removably attached to coupler 88. Whilenot shown or described in detail, it should be understood that the endeffector 110 includes a coupling assembly 111, identified in FIG. 10,which firmly and releasably holds the surgical instrument 160 to thecoupler 88. The coupling assembly 111 is designed to ensure that whenthe instrument is subjected to significant forces, these forces do notcause the slippage of the surgical instrument 160 relative to the endeffector 110. The end effector may be capable of movement in one or moredegrees of freedom. Such end effectors may include the surgicalinstruments disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/600,888,entitled, “Surgical Instrument Including Housing, a Cutting Accessorythat Extends from the Housing and Actuators that Establish the Positionof the Cutting Accessory Relative to the Housing”, hereby incorporatedby reference.

Also mounted to coupler 88 is a sensor 108, seen symbolically in FIG.13D. Sensor 108 is configured to output variable signals that are afunction of the force and torque to which the end effector 110 isdisposed. While the exact structure of sensor 108 is not describedherein, it should be understood that the sensor is a six degrees offreedom sensor. Sensor 108 thus outputs signals representative of threemutually orthogonal forces and three torques about the axes of theforces that are applied to the instrument or energy applicator.

Also mounted to cart 52, is a manipulator controller 124 and joint motorcontrollers 126, which are depicted in block form in FIG. 11.Manipulator controller 124 can be a high speed general purpose digitalcomputer. One such computer is the iHawk computer available fromConcurrent Computer having a ×8 SuperMicro motherboard. This computerhas dual quad core processors. In some versions, the manipulatorcontroller has less or more processing cores. In still other versions,the manipulator controller 124 has 16 or more processing cores.Manipulator controller 124, typically also has multiple graphicalprocessing units. In one embodiment, manipulator controller 124determines the location to which the surgical instrument 160 should bemoved based on data from force/torque sensor 108, encoders 112, 114,116, 117 and 118, surgical navigation system 210, as well as otherinformation. Based on this determination, manipulator controller 124determines the extent to which each arm-forming link needs to be movedin order to reposition the surgical instrument 160. The data regardingwhere the links are to be positioned are forwarded to the joint motorcontrollers 126.

Each joint motor controller 126 regulates the application ofenergization signals to a single one of the joint motors 101. Theprimary function of the joint motor controller 126 is to applyenergization signals to the associated motor 101 so that the motordrives the associated joint to an angle that approaches the belowdiscussed commanded joint angle. The signal from the rotary encoder 114is employed as a feedback signal representative of the actual jointangle to perform this type of motor regulation. Some controllers 126calculate the energization signals using cascaded position, speed, andcurrent control loops. Each control loop is often implemented usingproportional-integral-derivative control. A signal representative of thefeed forward torque is often added to the input of the current controlloop to improve the responsiveness of the controller 126.

Internal to the joint motor controller 126 is a drive circuit (notillustrated). A power signal from a power supply integral with themanipulator (power supply not illustrated) is applied to the drivecircuit. This drive circuit, in response to the last control loop outputsignal, converts the power signal into an appropriate energizationsignal that is applied to the motor 101. In many versions of manipulator50 the energization signal is in the form of a three phase pulse widthmodulated (PWM) voltage signal. This signal often has a voltageamplitude of between 10 and 200 Volts and a PWM frequency between 20 and200 kHz. The drive circuit supplies back to the current control loop thesignal representative of the current drawn by the motor 101. This signalis output to other software modules run on the manipulator controller124 as the measured motor current signal.

When motor 101 is a permanent magnet synchronous motor, controller 124also regulates the application of the energization signals so the drivencurrents are in correct phase with rotor position. This is known asmotor commutation. Some controllers perform commutation control based onfield oriented control techniques. To perform this regulation of thecurrent signals, the joint motor controller 126 relies on the signalsthat indicate the position of the motor rotor. Signals from the rotaryencoders 112, 114 and 116, are used as a feedback signal. In oneversion, REL-230-36 Motor Controllers from Harmonic Drive LLC ofPeabody, Mass. are employed as joint motor controllers 126.

A touch screen display 128 or other user input/output unit is alsomounted to cart 52. Display 128 is attached to a user interface 130 alsoattached to the cart. One such user interface 130 is the C6320 TouchScreen from Beckhoff Automation of Verl, Germany. User interface 130controls the presentation of information on the display 128 andinitially processes user-generated commands entered over the display.The majority of these commands are applied to the manipulator controller124.

User interface 130 is the manipulator processor to which the signalsoutput by pendant 190 are transmitted.

Cart 52 includes a tool controller 132. Tool controller 132 suppliesenergization signals to the surgical instrument 160. Tool controller 132typically includes: a power supply; power control circuit; a userinterface; an application specific data processing unit (components notillustrated). The power supply converts the line voltage into powersignals that can be applied to the surgical instrument 160. The powercontroller circuit selectively applies the power signals to the powergenerating unit integral with the instrument 160. The user interface 130allows the practitioner to enter instructions regarding how he/she wantsthe instrument to function. The tool controller 132 receives theinstructions entered over the user interface and other data necessary tooperate the instrument. Based on these data, the tool controller 132outputs energization signals that cause the instrument to operate in themanner instructed by the practitioner. A more detailed discussion of atool controller is contained in U.S. Pat. No. 7,422,582, CONTROL CONSOLETO WHICH POWERED SURGICAL HANDPIECES ARE CONNECTED, THE CONSOLECONFIGURED TO SIMULTANEOUSLY ENERGIZE MORE THAN ONE AND LESS THAN ALL OFTHE HANDPIECES, the contents of which are incorporated herein byreference.

In some versions, the manipulator display 128 functions as the userinterface and output display for the tool controller 132. Commands toset and adjust the operational settings of the tool controller 132 andinstrument 160 are forwarded from the user interface 130 to the toolcontroller 132.

Surgical instrument 160, seen in FIGS. 8-10, includes a shell 162 thatis the outer body of the instrument. Internal to the shell 162 is apower generating unit 163, represented by a dashed rectangle in FIG. 9.The power generating unit 163 converts the electrical power receivedfrom the tool controller 132 into an appropriate form of power. If forexample, instrument 160 is a motorized surgical instrument, powergenerating unit 163 is the instrument motor. If the instrument vibrates,power generating unit 163 is the component that converts the electricalenergy that causes the desired mechanical vibrations. If the instrument160 outputs light (photonic) energy, the power generating unit is theunit that converts the electrical energy into light energy.

Six control buttons are mounted to instrument shell 160. Two buttons,buttons 164 and 174 are mounted to the opposed sides of the shell 160.Buttons 164 and 174 are normally open momentary contact switches thatare connected in parallel. When the practitioner wants to actuate theinstrument 160, the practitioner depresses either one of the buttons 164or 174. The open/closed state of the circuit regulated by buttons 164and 174 are monitored by the user interface 130, connections not shown.Interface 130 forwards these state data to the manipulator controller124. Manipulator controller 124, based in part on the state of thesecontrol members, sends commands to the tool controller 132. Based onthese commands, the tool controller 132 selectively applies energizationsignals to the power generating unit 163 internal to instrument 160. Thetwo buttons 164 and 174 are provided so the practitioner can actuate theinstrument 160 by depressing a button located on either side of theinstrument.

Buttons 166, 168 and 170 are located on the front face of the instrumentshell 162. Buttons 166, 168 and 170 are provided to facilitate operationof the surgical navigation system 210. This particular operation of thesurgical navigation system is not part of the present invention.

The sixth button, button 172 is mounted to the top of the instrument.Button 172 is a momentary contact push button switch. As discussedbelow, button 172 is depressed when the practitioner wants to change theorientation of the instrument when in the semi-autonomous mode. As willbe apparent below, the changing of the orientation of the instrumentmeans the repositioning of the instrument and energy applicator 184 sothat the both devices pivot around the distal end tip of the energyapplicator while the distal end tip of the energy applicator 184continues to advance along the planned path while in the semi-autonomousmode.

A switch 176, seen in FIG. 8, is pivotally mounted to instrument shell162. Switch 176 is mounted to the proximally directed side of the shell162. Switch 176 is a normally open momentary contact switch. Switch 176is the control member the practitioner depresses when he/she wants tomanually set the pose of the instrument. It should be understood thatthe “pose” of a component is the position and orientation of thecomponent. The open/closed states of button 172 and switch 176 aremonitored by manipulator controller 124 and user interface 130,connections not shown.

Extending forward from instrument shell 162 is the energy applicator184. The energy applicator 184 is the component that applies the energyoutput by the instrument power generating unit 163 to the site at whichthe procedure is being performed on the patient. If the power generatingunit 163 is a motor, the energy applicator 184 may be a drill, a sawblade or a bur. If the power generating unit is an ultrasonic vibrator,the energy applicator 184 is a tip. If the power generating unit outputsphotonic energy, the energy applicator 184 is some sort of member thatis transparent to the wavelength of light emitted by the powergenerator. Generally, the distal end of the energy applicator 184, oftenreferred to as the distal end tip, is the portion of the instrumentenergy applicator 184 that is applied to the tissue on which theprocedure is to be performed.

Many instruments 160 include a coupling assembly, represented by ring182 in FIG. 9. The coupling assembly releasably holds the energyapplicator 184 to the shell 162 and releasably connects the energyapplicator 184 to the power generating unit 163.

One motorized surgical instrument that may function as instrument 10 aswell as a complementary energy applicator 184 are disclosed in U.S. Pat.No. 6,562,055, CUTTING ATTACHMENT FOR SURGICAL HANDPIECE DESIGNED TO BESELECTIVELY COUPLED TO THE HANDPIECE, the contents of which areexplicitly incorporated herein by reference.

For the manipulator 50 to emulate the positioning of the instrument bythe practitioner, it should be appreciated that the instrument andenergy applicator 184 are modeled as a virtual rigid body. This virtualrigid body is considered to have a virtual mass. The virtual mass of thevirtual rigid body is typically within the same order of magnitude asthe actual mass of the instrument 160 and energy applicator 184. Owingto mechanical and electrical limitations, often the virtual mass isgreater than the actual mass. By extension, it is understood that thevirtual rigid body has its own center of mass. In FIG. 8 this isrepresented by point 165 which is a point internal to the handpieceshell 162. This is a point that would be perceived as the center of massof the actual instrument. Often, but not always, this point is on orwithin the instrument. Here “center of mass” is understood to be thepoint around which the instrument and energy applicator 184 would rotateif a force is applied to another point of the instrument. The center ofmass of the virtual rigid body is close to, but is often not the sameas, the actual center of mass of the instrument 160 with the energyapplicator 184 attached.

The center of mass of the virtual rigid body can be determinedempirically. Once the instrument and energy applicator 184 are attachedto the manipulator, the position of the center of mass can be reset toaccommodate the preferences of the individual practitioners.

Pendant 190, now described by reference to FIGS. 2A and 2B, is also usedto regulate operation of the manipulator 50. Pendant 190 as seen in FIG.2A, includes a shell 191 shaped to be held in one hand. Three normallyopen control members are mounted to shell. These control members areused to regulate semi-autonomous operation of the manipulator 50. Onecontrol member, trigger 194 is located on the underside of the shell.Trigger 194 is depressed to place the manipulator in the mode in whichthe manipulator performs semi-autonomous advancement of the instrument160. The two additional control members, buttons 193 and 195, arelocated on the top surface of the shell 191. Buttons 193 and 195regulate the rate at which the manipulator 50, when in thesemi-autonomous mode, advances the instrument. One of the buttons,button 193, is depressed to slow the rate of semi-autonomous instrumentadvancement. Button 195 is depressed to advance the rate ofsemi-autonomous advancement. The speed at which the instrument engagesin semi-autonomous advancement is referred to as the feed rate of theinstrument. Ergonomically, pendant 190 is designed so that thepractitioner can, with the thumb and fingers of one hand depress trigger194 and, at the same time, depress either button 193 or button 195.

Pendant 190 includes additional control members (not identified). Thesemembers allow the practitioner to enter commands and data into thesurgical navigation system 210. A cable 197 connects pendant 190 to cart52.

The surgical navigation system 210 used with manipulator 50 of thisinvention is now described by reference to FIGS. 1, 11 and 13D. Surgicalnavigation system 210 includes one tracker, tracker 212, that is firmlyaffixed to the patient 600. Often tracker 212 is firmly affixed to asection of bone adjacent where the tissue to which the instrument energyapplicator 184 is to be applied.

A second tracker, tracker 214, seen in FIG. 1, is firmly attached to theend effector 110. Since the instrument positioned by the manipulator 50is firmly attached to the end effector, tracker 214 is sometimesreferred to as the tool tracker.

A localizer 216 receives signals from or transmits signals to thetrackers 212 and 214. If the localizer 216 receives light signals fromthe trackers 212 and 214, the localizer may be called a camera. Thesurgical navigation system also includes a navigation processor 218. Ifthe localizer 216 receives signals from the trackers 212 and 214, thelocalizer outputs to the processor 218 signals based on the position andorientation of the trackers to the localizer (localizer to processor 218connection not shown). If the trackers 212 and 214 receive signals fromthe localizer 216, the trackers output to the processor 218 signalsbased on the position and orientation of the trackers to the localizer.Based on the received signals, navigation processor 218 generates dataindicating the relative positions and orientations of the trackers 212and 214 to the localizer 216. In some versions, the surgical navigationsystem 210 could include the trackers, sensor system, localizer, and/orcomputer system disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,725,162 to Malackowski etal., issued on May 25, 2010, entitled, “Surgery System”, herebyincorporated by reference.

As discussed below, prior to the start of the procedure, additional dataare loaded into the navigation processor 218. Based on the position andorientation of the trackers 212 and 214 and the previously loaded data,navigation processor 218 determines the position of the distal end ofinstrument energy applicator 184 and the orientation of the instrumentrelative to the tissue against which the energy applicator 184 is to beapplied. Navigation processor 218 forwards these data to the manipulatorcontroller 124.

The navigation processor 218 also generates image signals that indicatethe relative position of the instrument energy applicator 184 to thesurgical site. These image signals are applied to an interface 220, alsopart of the surgical navigation system 210. Interface 220, based onthese signals, generates images that allow the practitioner to view therelative position of the instrument energy applicator 184 to thesurgical site. Interface 220 includes a touch screen or otherinput/output device that allows entry of commands.

Manipulator controller 124 and navigation processor 218 cooperate toposition the end effector 110 so that the energy applicator 184 isappropriately positioned at the site at which the procedure is to beperformed on the patient 600. As part of this positioning, manipulatorcontroller 124 does not position the energy applicator 184 outside ofdefined boundaries. To perform this process, controller 124 andprocessor 218 collectively keep track of the poses of a number ofdifferent system components and the patient 600. Each component pose canbe considered tracked relative to a world coordinate system. The worldcoordinate system has an origin and an orientation (i.e., a set of X-Y-and Z-axes) that, for the procedure being performed, are both static.The coordinate system of the manipulator 50 is the world coordinatesystem, MNPL, as seen in FIG. 12. In one version, the origin ofmanipulator coordinate system MNPL is a point along the axis through theshoulder 69 associated with upper arm 70. This point is the intersectionof the axis around which the shoulder 69 rotates and the axes aroundwhich the arm links 74 and 76 rotate. In FIG. 12, to distinguish betweenthe structure of the manipulator upper arm 70 and the manipulatorcoordinate system MNPL, the coordinate system is shown in dashed lines.

A second static coordinate system that is associated with this inventionis the coordinate system of the localizer 216, LCLZ.

Each tracked component has its own coordinate system separate fromcoordinate system MNPL and coordinate system LCLZ. Each of thesecoordinate systems has an origin that can be identified as a pointrelative to the origin of the manipulator coordinate system MNPL. Avector defines the position of the origin of each of these coordinatesystems relative to another one of the other coordinate systems. Thelocation of a coordinate system is thus understood to be the location ofthe origin of the coordinate system. Each of these coordinate systemsalso has an orientation that, more often than not, is different from theorientation of manipulator coordinate system MNPL. The orientation of acoordinate system can be considered the angular positions of the X-, Y-and Z-axes of the coordinate system relative to the corresponding axesof the manipulator coordinate system MNPL. A rotation matrix describesthe orientation of a coordinate system relative to another coordinatesystem. The rotation matrix consists of the unit vectors of the axis ofone coordinate system expressed in the other coordinate system. Theposition vector and the rotation matrix that define the relation of onecoordinate system to another collectively form the homogenoustransformation matrix. The symbol ^(i−1) _(i)T is the notation for thehomogenous transformation matrix that identifies the position andorientation of coordinate system i with respect to coordinate systemi−1.

Two components of the system that have their own coordinate systems arethe bone tracker 212 and the tool tracker 214. In FIG. 12 thesecoordinate systems are represented as, respectively, bone trackercoordinate system BTRK and tool tracker coordinate system TLTR.

Navigation system 210 monitors the position of the patient 600 bymonitoring the position of bone tracker 212, the tracker firmly attachedto bone of the patient 600. The patient's coordinate system isconsidered to be the bone coordinate system BONE, the coordinate systemof the bone to which the bone tracker 212 is firmly attached. Prior tothe start of the procedure, pre-operative images of the location of thesite on the patient at which the procedures are performed are generated.These images may be based on MRI scans, radiological scans or computedtomography (CT) scans of the surgical site. These images are mapped tothe bone coordinate system BONE using methods not material to thepresent invention. These images are fixed in the bone coordinate systemBONE.

During the initial phase of the procedure, the bone tracker 212 isfirmly affixed to the bone of the patient. Using process steps not partof the present invention, the pose of coordinate system BONE is mappedto coordinate system BTRK. Given the fixed relationship between the boneand the bone tracker 212, the pose of coordinate system BONE remainsfixed relative to coordinate system BTRK throughout the procedure. Thepose-describing data are stored in memory integral with both manipulatorcontroller 124 and navigation processor 218.

In addition to coordinate system MNPL, there are additional coordinatesystems associated with the manipulator 50. The end effector 110 has itsown coordinate system, coordinate system EFCT. There is also acoordinate system associated with the virtual model of the instrument160. This coordinate system has its origin at the center of mass of thevirtual rigid body. Given the origin of this coordinate system, thiscoordinate system is referred to as coordinate system CMVB. The Z-axisof instrument coordinate system CMVB is centered on the longitudinalaxis that extends through the instrument 160 and the energy applicator184. The energy applicator 184 has its own coordinate system, systemEAPP. The origin of the coordinate system EAPP is the distal end tip ofthe energy applicator 184. The Z-axis of the energy applicator 184coordinate system EAPP is aligned with the longitudinal axis of theenergy applicator 184. This Z-axis extends outwardly away from thedistal end tip of the energy applicator 184. This is why in FIG. 12 theZ-axis of coordinate system EAPP is shown with an orientation that isgenerally in the negative direction of the Z-axes of the othercoordinate systems. An additional coordinate system associated withmanipulator 50 is the previously described coordinate system of the tooltracker 214, system TLTR.

Not depicted in FIG. 12 are representations of some of the minorcoordinate systems. As discussed below, these coordinate systems areonly referenced occasionally during the operation of the manipulator.These coordinate systems are not illustrated in FIG. 12 to reduce thecomplexity of this Figure.

It should be appreciated that, upon assembly of the components of thisinvention for use, the poses of coordinate system EFCT, the virtualrigid body coordinate system CMVB, the energy applicator coordinatesystem EAPP and the tool tracker coordinate system TLTR are fixedrelative to each other. Accordingly, upon assembly of the components,the poses of these coordinate systems relative to each other aredetermined. These coordinate system and pose data are stored in a memoryintegral with the end effector 110, coupling assembly 111, instrument160 or energy applicator 184. There may be some versions where thesedata are stored in the memory integral to the manipulator controller124.

III. Software

FIG. 13A through 13E depict basic software modules executed by themanipulator controller 124 and navigation processor 218. FIGS. 13Athrough 13E also represent how the software modules interact withhardware to actuate the manipulator so surgical instrument 160 isdisplaced.

FIG. 13A depicts some software modules run on the navigation processor218. One of these modules is the boundary generator (BDNRY GNRTR) 232.Boundary generator 232 is a software module that generates a map thatdefines one or more boundaries between the tissue to which theinstrument energy applicator 184 should be applied and the tissue towhich the energy applicator 184 should not be applied. This boundary istypically generated when energy applicator 184 is used to remove avolume of tissue. These types of energy applicators include, but are notlimited to: burs; drill bits; saw blades; ultrasonic vibrating tips;electrode tips; RF electrodes; cauterizing and ablation tips; and lightemitting tips.

An input into the boundary generator 232 includes the preoperativeimages (PRE-OP IMGS) of the site on which the procedure is to beperformed. If the manipulator is used to selectively remove tissue sothe patient can be fitted with an implant, a second input into theboundary generator 232 is a map of the shape of the implant. The initialversion of this map may come from an implant database (IMPNT DB). Thisis because the shape of the implant defines the boundaries of the tissuethat should be removed to receive the implant. This relationship isespecially true if the implant is an orthopedic implant intended to befitted to the bone of the patient.

A third input into boundary generator 232 is the surgeon's settings(SRGN STNGS). These settings include the practitioner's settingsindicating to which tissue the energy applicator 184 should be applied.If the energy applicator 184 is used to remove tissue, the settingsidentify the boundaries between the tissue to be removed and the tissuethat remains after application of the energy applicator 184. If themanipulator 50 is used to assist in the fitting of a orthopedic implant,these settings define where over the tissue the implant should bepositioned. These settings may be entered preoperatively using a dataprocessing unit. Alternatively, these settings may be entered through aninput/output unit associated with one of the components of the systemsuch as with navigation interface 220.

Based on the above input data and instructions, boundary generator 232generates a map that defines the instrument energy applicator 184boundaries.

In practice, prior to the start of the procedure an initial version ofthe map may be set by the practitioner at the surgical site. At thestart of the procedure, data that more precisely defines the implantthat is to be actually fitted to the patient is loaded into the boundarygenerator 232. These data may come from a storage device associated withthe implant such as a memory stick or an RFID tag. For ease ofunderstanding the invention, these data can be considered a component ofthe implant database data supplied to the boundary generator 232. Thesedata are based on post manufacture measurements of the specific implant.These data provide a definition of the shape of the specific implantthat, due to manufacturing variations, may be slightly different thanthe previously available stock definition of implant shape. Based onthis implant-specific data, the boundary generator 232 generates a finaldefinition of the cutting guide, the boundaries between the tissue to beremoved and the tissue that should remain in place. Implants that couldbe implanted into the patient include those shown in U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 13/530,927, filed on Jun. 22, 2012 and entitled,“Prosthetic Implant and Method of Implantation”, hereby incorporated byreference. The implants disclosed in this patent application could thusbe used to define the cutting guide and thereafter be implanted in thepatient after the appropriate amount of material, such as bone, isremoved. Other implants are also contemplated.

In one version, the boundary generator 232 generates the boundarybetween the tissue that is to be excised and the tissue that is toremain in place as a set of contiguous defined surface areas. In onemore specific version, these surface areas are polygons. Moreparticularly, these surface areas are triangles. The corners of eachpolygon are defined by points in the bone coordinate system BONE. InFIG. 15A, surface 242 is the boundary between where tissue is to beremoved and the tissue that is to remain in place. Sometimes theboundary is referred to as a mesh. An individual area section thatdefines a portion of the boundary or mesh is referred to as a tile.

A tool path generator (TOOL PATH GNRTR) 234 is a second software modulerun on the navigation processor 218. Tool path generator 234 receivesthe same general inputs as those applied to the boundary generator 232.Based on these inputs, the tool path generator 234 generates a tool path248 as seen in FIGS. 15A and 15B. FIG. 15A represents a bone 202, asection of which is to be removed to receive an implant. Surface 242 isa boundary beyond which the energy applicator 184 should not be applied.Surface 242 is therefore also the outline of the bone 202 remainingafter the removal procedure, the bone to which the implant is to bemounted. Dashed line 244 represents the perimeter of the bone that is tobe removed using manipulator 50. In FIG. 15A the tool path isrepresented by the back and forth line 248. The smoothness and qualityof the finished surface depends in part of the relative positioning ofthe back and forth line 248. More specifically, the closer together eachback and forth pass of the line, the more precise and smooth is thefinished surface.

In addition, the configuration of the tool path 248 also contributes tothe quality of the finished surface. For example, in one pathconfiguration, the circumference of the surface boundary is cut firstwith the tool path migrating inward toward the center. In thisconfiguration, there is no allowance for the outflow of the removedmaterial. In another configuration, the tool path starts at the centerof the section of bone to be removed and proceeds in an outwarddirection. In this way, the removed material has outflow path and doesnot interfere with the removal process.

In FIG. 15A the tool path 248 is shown as only being within theperimeter of the tissue being removed. The location of the tool path 248is a function of the geometry of the distal end of the energy applicator184. For example, the center of the distal end of the energy applicator184 may be the origin of coordinate system EAPP. In this implementation,when the tool path is generated, the tool path generator 232 accountsfor the fact that the energy applicator 184 actually extends beyond theorigin of coordinate system EAPP. If the energy applicator 184 is aspherical bur, this means that the tool path segments closest toboundary 242 are typically spaced away from boundary a distance at leastequal to the radius of the bur head.

Tool path 248 is not plotted in a single plane. In FIG. 15B tool path248 is shown as comprising a number of layers wherein top most segmentsare shown as set of solid connected lines and dashed lines representsegments located below the top segments.

As seen in FIG. 15C, the tool path 248 includes a number of pathsegments. Each segment includes the set of points along which the originof coordinate system EAPP should travel. As seen in the Figure,individual segments 256, 262 and 266 may be straight or curved. Eachsegment 256, 262 and 266 has an origin and a terminus. Point 258, isboth the origin of tool path 248 and the origin of segment 256. Theterminus of one segment will be the origin of the abutting segment.Thus, point 260 is both the terminus of segment 256 and the origin ofsegment 262. Point 264, is the terminus of segment 262 and the origin ofsegment 266. Point 268 is the terminus of segment 266. Point 268 mayalso be the terminus of tool path 248 and the origin of another toolpath that is not illustrated. In FIG. 15C, segment 266 is depicted as asequence of dashed lines, from origin to terminus, of decreasing size.This is to diagrammatically depict that the path in addition to having Xand Y components, has a Z component that is into or out of the page onwhich FIG. 15C is depicted.

Tool path generator 234 receives as inputs the image of the tissue, datadefining the shape of the boundary, and the surgeon's setting regardingthe location of the boundary. For an orthopedic surgical procedure, theboundary is typically the shape of the implant; the surgeon setting isoften the position of the implant. Based on these data, the tool pathgenerator 234 defines the tool path 248. Each tool path segment 256, 262and 266 is defined as a vector or a curve that extends between pointspresent in bone coordinate system BONE. It should be understood that thepath segments are defined in three dimensions. This is because theinstrument energy applicator 184 is not just applied in a single planeto the tissue. The energy applicator 184 also moves up or down in orderto contact tissue in the plane above or below the plane in which it ispresently located.

Once a procedure begins, the tool path generator 234 receives additionaldata. These data are the data from the below described removed materiallogger 275 that identifies the sections of the tissue to which theenergy applicator 184 has been applied. Based on these data, the toolpath generator 234 revises the path segments of the tool path. Theserevisions are performed to avoid the generation of path segments thatwould have the energy applicator 184 transit through spaces left void asa consequence of the previous removal of tissue. Adaptation or revisionof the cutting path may include a high velocity jump wherein the energyapplicator 184 jumps across a known gap in the volume of removed tissue(also referred to as a sub-volume) at a high velocity. Revision of thecutting path may also include a circuitous path that routes around areaswhere bone has been previously removed. Further, adaptation of thecutting path may also include sub-volume areas that are labeled ascomplete and would not be part of any autonomous cutting path if thatmode was used to complete any part of the remaining bone removal.

A localization engine 270 is a third software module that can beconsidered part of the surgical navigation system 210. In some versions,the localization engine 270 is run on the manipulator controller 124.Components of the localization engine 270 may also run on navigationprocessor 218. Localization engine 270 receives as inputs the signalslocalizer 216 outputs as a function of the signals received fromtrackers 212 and 214. Based on these signals received from the bonetracker 212, localization engine 270 determines the pose of the bonecoordinate system BONE relative to the localizer coordinate system LCLZ.Based on the signals received from the tool tracker 214, thelocalization engine 270 determines the pose of the tool trackercoordinate system TLTR relative to the localizer coordinate system LCLZ.

The localization engine 270 forwards the signals representative of theposes of trackers 212 and 214 to a coordinate transformer 272.Coordinate transformer 272 is a navigation system software module thatruns on navigation processor 218. Coordinate transformer 272 is asoftware module that references the data that defines the relationshipbetween the preoperative images of the patient and the patient tracker212. Coordinate transformer 272 also stores the data indicating the poseof the instrument energy applicator 184 relative to the tool tracker214.

Navigation processor 218 includes the removed material logger 275. Theremoved material logger 275 contains a map of the volume of the tissueto which the energy applicator 184 is to be applied. Often this is a mapof a volume of tissue that is to be removed. In FIG. 13A, this map isshown being based on the preoperative images of the patient. Other datathat goes into maintaining this map may come from the data describingthe shape of the implant and the personal setting of the surgeon,connections not shown. Other sources of data for defining this volumeincluding mapping data obtained at the start of the procedure. Thesedata may be obtained by applying a pointer to landmarks on the tissue towhich the energy applicator 184 is to be applied.

Logger 275 also collects data identifying the on-patient locations towhich the energy applicator 184 is applied. In one implementation ofthis invention, these data are the data that describes the locations towhich the end effector and, by extension, the energy applicator 184,have advanced. These data may be based on the below described data fromthe manipulator that tracks the movement of the arms 68 and 70. Thesedata may be based on the commanded or measured pose data. Alternatively,these data may be generated based on the data describing the movement ofthe tool tracker. Logger 275 transforms these data regarding movement ofthe end effector and the tool tracker into data that defines where,relative to the bone 202, the energy applicator 184 has moved. Logger275 stores these data.

Based on these data, the logger 275 generates image data suitable forpresentation on one of the displays that indicates the extent to whichthe energy applicator 184 has been applied to the tissue. These imagedata may be presented on navigation interface 220. The images present bythe logger may indicate surface sections of tissue to which the energyapplicator 184 has not been applied and sections of tissue to which theenergy applicator 184 has been applied. The images presented by thelogger also identify the sections of tissue to which it is not necessaryto apply the energy applicator 184; the tissue outside of the boundaryarea. This tissue includes tissue beyond the boundaries exposed by theremoval of tissue.

Logger 275 provides data indicating the sections of the tissue to whichthe energy applicator 184 has and has not been applied to the tool pathgenerator 234.

As mentioned above, the pose of coordinate system EAPP is typicallyfixed relative to coordinate system TLTR. The location of patient'stissue and the representation of the tissue are typically fixed relativeto the bone tracker coordinate system BTRK.

During the procedure, the coordinate transformer 272 receives the dataindicating the relative poses of the trackers 212 and 214 to thelocalizer 216. Based on these data and the previous loaded data, thecoordinate transformer 272 generates data indicating the relativeposition and orientation of both the origin of coordinate system EAPP,and the bone tracker coordinate system, BTRK to the manipulatorcoordinate system MNPL. Based on these data, coordinate transformer 272generates data indicating the position and orientation of the distal endof the energy applicator 184 relative to the tissue against which theinstrument is applied. Image signals representative of these data areforwarded to interface 220 enabling the surgeon to view thisinformation.

Two additional sets of software modules are run on the manipulatorcontroller 124. One set of software modules perform behavior control.Behavior control is the process of generating instructions that indicatethe next commanded pose for the energy applicator 184.

The second set of software modules perform what is known as motioncontrol. One aspect of motion control is the control of the manipulator50. In the below discussed motion control process, the motion controlprocess receives data defining the next commanded pose of the energyapplicator 184 from the behavior control process. Based on these data,the motion control process determines the next position of the jointangles of manipulator 50. A second aspect of motion control is theproviding feedback to the behavior control modules based on theconstraints of the manipulator. These constraints include the jointangle limits of the manipulator and the goal of insuring that plurallinks do not move closer than a minimum distance towards each other. Afurther component of this feedback control is the ensuring that theenergy applicator 184 is kept within a defined workspace boundary.Movement of energy applicator 184 is limited to the area within thisworkspace boundary to ensure that the dexterity of the instrument 160 isnot diminished. The motion control modules also monitor the state of themanipulator 50 to detect if external forces/torques are being applied toor objects are in contact with the manipulator 50 or instrument 160.

Feedback data generated by the motion control processes are applied tothe behavior control processes. Based on these data, the behaviorcontrol processes adjusts the manipulator's movement of the instrumentand energy applicator 184. The behavior control processors perform thisadjustment by using these data as variables for establishing the nextcommanded pose for the energy applicator 184. Once this next commandedpose is established, the motion control processes cause the manipulator50 to advance the energy applicator 184 towards this position.

FIG. 13B depicts the software modules that form the behavior controlprocesses. One of these modules is the tool path force calculator (TOOLPATH FRC CLCLTR) 278. Tool path force calculator 278 calculates twovariables. A first one of these variables are the forces and torquesthat when applied to the virtual rigid body, results in the advancementof the distal end of the energy applicator 184. The second one of thesevariables are forces and torques applied to the virtual rigid body tomaintain the orientation of the instrument 160 within an acceptablerange of orientations. Tool path force calculator 278 includes a numberof sub modules.

One of the modules that form the tool path force calculator 278 is thefeed rate calculator 284, as seen in FIG. 16A. Feed rate calculator 284determines the velocity, referred to as the instrument feed rate, atwhich the distal end of the energy applicator 184 should move as ittravels along an individual path segment. The primary input into thefeed rate calculator 284 is the defined feed rate (DEFINED F.R.) In itsmost fundamental form, the defined feed rate is a scalar value. Inpractice, the manipulator controller 124 is often provided with pluraldefined feed rates. A specific defined feed rate is assigned to eachpath segment. This feed rate assignment may be performed preoperatively.The feed rates can then be adjusted at the start of or during theprocedure. Two or more contiguous path segments may be assigned the samedefined feed rate. These feed rates are generated based on variablessuch as: the shape of the void space; the type of energy applicator 184;the health of the patient; the nature of the tissue to which the energyapplicator 184 is applied; and the geometry of the path segment. Inpractice, the defined feed rate is typically between 5 and 400 mm/sec.

In practice, the defined feed rate is generated by the tool pathgenerator 234, connection not shown.

Feed rate calculator 284 adjusts the defined feed rate to produce theinstrument feed rate. In one version, this adjustment is performed bymultiplying the defined feed rate by a number of coefficients. Eachcoefficient is generally between 0 and 1.0. Coefficients may have valuesthat exceed 1.0. Each of these coefficients changes as a function of avariable that is also applied to the feed rate calculator 284. The firstof these variables is the user adjustment (USER ADJUST) of the feedrate. This is the adjustment of the feed rate that the practitionerperforms, in real time, as the procedure progresses. The practitionermakes this adjustment of the feed rate by depressing pendant buttons 193and 195. The feed rate calculator 284 outputs a coefficient as afunction of the practitioner entered command to increase or decrease theinstrument feed rate.

A second variable used to selectively scale the defined feed rate isforce and torque to which the energy applicator 184 is exposed (SNSDF/T). The energy applicator 184 is rigidly attached to the instrument160 and the instrument is rigidly attached to the end effector 110.Accordingly, the signals output by the end effector force/torque sensor108 are the signals representative of the forces and torques to whichenergy applicator 184 is exposed. Feed rate calculator 284 sets theinstrument rate based on the principle that there is relationshipbetween the amount of force/torque that the manipulator applies to theinstrument and energy applicator 184 and the rate of instrumentadvancement. Generally, it is a goal of modern medical practice tominimize the heating of tissue that is not being removed. One reason forthis goal is to minimize the attendant damage this needless heating cancause to the tissue. Accordingly, manipulator 50 of this invention isconfigured to, when it is determined that an appreciable amount of forceand/or torque is applied to the instrument or energy applicator 184,slow the advancement of the instrument along the path segment.

One example of where this adjustment of instrument feed rate is usefulis when the energy applicator 184 travels across a path segment throughboth cortical bone and cancellous bone. Cortical bone, the outer bone,is relatively hard. Cancellous bone, the inner bone, is more porous andless resistant to removal than cortical bone. Accordingly if the energyapplicator 184 moves across both types of bone at a constant speed, moreforce/torque is needed to be applied to move the applicator across thecortical bone than the cancellous bone. This means that, withoutadjustment of instrument speed, the cortical bone would be subject tomore potentially damage inducing heating than the adjacent section ofcancellous bone. This feature of the manipulator of this inventionminimizes this potential for the unwanted heating by slowing the rate ofadvancement for the instrument energy applicator 184 when theforce/torque sensor 108 provides signals indicating that the amount offorce/torque required to advance the instrument increases.

Once the energy applicator 184 moves from cutting the cortical bone tocancellous bone, the force/torque required to advance the instrumentdecreases. In this situation, the rate at which the instrument isadvanced can be speeded up without appreciably increasing the extent towhich the bone to which the energy applicator 184 is applied is heated.The feed rate calculator 284 therefore increases the calculated rate ofthe advancement of the instrument. This reduces the amount of time ittakes to perform the procedure on the patient. This is desirable becauseit is a further goal of modern surgical practice to minimize the time ittakes to perform the procedure on the patient. One reason this timeminimization is desired is because it lessens the amount of time thepatient's internal tissue is exposed and open to infection. Also,performing the procedure as quickly as possible lessens both thelikelihood of surgeon fatigue and the amount of time the patient must beheld under anesthesia.

Feed rate calculator 284 determines a force/torque adjustmentcoefficient as based on one, two or three of: (1) the magnitude of a sixcomponent vector comprised of the individual force and torquecomponents; (2) the magnitude of a three component vector comprised ofthe individual force components; and (3) the magnitude of a vectorcomprised of any combination of individual force and/or torquecomponents. Alternatively, the coefficient is based on one or more ofthe largest force or torque components. Based on one or more of thesevariables, feed rate calculator 284, by reference to data in anassociated look-up table 286, determines a force/torque adjustmentcoefficient.

In addition to adjusting the instrument feed rate, the speed of theenergy applicator 184 may also be varied. More specifically, where theenergy applicator 184 is a bur, the speed of the cutting teeth of thebur may be adjusted and optimized to improve the accuracy of the tissueremoval and to minimize heat generation at the tissue. The optimal speedof the bur cutting teeth is a factor of cutter rotational speed andcutter diameter, which are optimized based on the tooth geometry and thetype of material being removed.

A third variable upon which the instrument feed rate is adjusted is thecurvature of the path segment (PATH CRVTR). This adjustment is performedto ensure that when the instrument is displaced along a curved path oftravel, the instrument is not displaced at such a high rate of speedthat the momentum causes the energy applicator 184 to move away from thepath of travel. Generally, when the path of travel is linear or has arelatively small curvature, the defined feed rate is not adjusted basedon the curvature. When the feed rate calculator 284 receives anindication that the instrument energy applicator 184 is traveling alonga path segment with a relatively large curvature, or a small radius, thecalculator downwardly adjusts the defined feed rate, based on thisvariable in order to produce the instrument feed rate.

The feed rate calculator 284 receives an indication of the curvature,the PATH CRVTR variable, of the path along which the energy applicator184 is traveling from a curvature calculator 291 (FIG. 16B). Asdiscussed below, the curvature calculator 291 is another sub-modulecomponent of the tool path force calculator 278. Based on this inputvariable, the feed rate calculator 284 refers to one of the look uptables 286 to determine a coefficient that reflects the extent to whichthe defined feed rate should be adjusted. Generally, when the path oftravel is linear or has a curvature approaching zero, the defined feedrate is not adjusted based on the curvature. The coefficient is at ornear 1.0. When the feed rate calculator 284 receives an indication thatthe instrument energy applicator 184 is traveling along a path segmentwith a relatively large curvature, the calculator downwardly adjusts thedefined feed rate, based on this variable in order to produce theinstrument feed rate. The retrieved coefficient decreases from unity. Insome versions, if the curvature is 0.05 mm⁻¹ or lower, feed ratecalculator 284 does not attenuate the instrument feed rate based on thecurvature of the segment along which the energy applicator 184 isadvancing.

A fourth variable upon which the defined feed rate is adjusted toproduce the instrument feed rate is instrument power (INST POWER). Thisvariable is the amount of power the instrument applies through theenergy applicator 184 to the patient. Instrument power is employed as aninput variable for adjusting instrument feed rate because generally asthe power the instrument applies to the tissue increases, the extent towhich the tissue is heated by this power is increased. As discussedabove, it is desirable to minimize the extent to which the tissue issubjected to the potentially damaging heating. There may also besituations in which, the large outputting of power by the instrumentindicates that manipulator is entering a state in which, if instrumentfeed rate is not reduced, the performance of the energy applicator 184will drop. For example, if a large amount of power needs to be appliedto the bur, this increase in power may indicate that the bur may beentering a state in which it is having difficulty removing the materialit should remove. To ensure that the bur performs as expected, it isthen desirable to reduce the rate of advancement of the bur. This canhelp improve the accuracy with which material is removed. Improving theaccuracy of tissue removal enhances the surface finish and definition ofthe tissue that remains after application of the bur.

Accordingly, when there is an indication that the power applied by theinstrument 160 increases, feed rate calculator 284 outputs a reducedinstrument feed rate.

In constructions in which the instrument 160 is a motorized tool, thepower variable can be the amount of torque output by the tool motor.

Generally there is a directly proportional relationship between thecurrent applied to the tool and the torque output by the tool.Accordingly, a measure of the current drawn by the tool is employed asthe instrument power variable. The instrument power signalrepresentative of this variable is generated by the tool controller 132and applied to the manipulator controller 124. More particularly, acircuit internal to the instrument controller 132 that monitors thecurrent drawn by the instrument outputs a signal representative of thecurrent drawn by the instrument. This signal is the root signal uponwhich either an analog or digital INST POWER signal applied to feed ratecalculator 284 is generated.

The feed rate calculator 284, based on the INST POWER signal and byreference to one of the look up tables 286, determines a coefficientthat indicates the extent to which the defined feed rate should bescaled based on the instrument power to determine the instrument feedrate.

A fifth variable that is used as a factor for adjusting the defined feedrate to produce the instrument feed rate is tissue temperature (TISSUETEMP.) This is due to the above mentioned goal of modern surgicalpractice to minimize the extent that the patient's uncut tissue isheated. Temperature sensor 97 provides an indication of the tissuetemperature (TISSUE TEMP). In the Figures temperature sensor 97 is shownonly symbolically in FIG. 16A. Typically the sensor 97 is mounted to theinstrument 160. Again, the signal output by sensor 97 may berepresentative of the temperature of the tissue or the temperature ofthe energy applicator 184. Often the signal output by the temperaturesensor 97 is routed through tool controller 132 to manipulatorcontroller 124. In addition to the temperature of the uncut tissue,another factor for adjusting the defined feed rate may include thetemperature of the chips removed by the energy applicator 184. The chipsfrom and material removed are often referred to as “slurry.” Thetemperature of the slurry may be measured in any suitable mannerincluding temperature sensor 97.

Feed rate calculator 284, based on the temperature represented by theTISSUE TEMP signal and by reference to one of the look-up tables 286,determines the appropriate tissue temperature feed rate adjustmentcoefficient. If the TISSUE TEMP signal indicates that the tissuetemperature is within an acceptable range, this coefficient may be at ornear 1.0. Alternatively, if the TISSUE TEMP signal indicates that thetissue or energy applicator 184 temperature is approaching or above alevel at which there may be appreciable damage to the tissue, theretrieved coefficient may decrease from unity.

A sixth variable employed by the feed rate calculator 284 to generatethe instrument feed rate is the computed force (CMPTD FORCE). Asdiscussed below, this computed force is the force that is applied to thevirtual rigid body. In response to this force, the motion controlprocesses advance energy applicator 184 along the tool path. Thecomputed force is computed by another one of the behavior controlprocess software modules. This computed force, (which can include torquecomponents), serves as an input variable from which a commanded positionfor the end effector is determined.

Feed rate calculator 284 generates the instrument feed rate so there isan inverse relationship between the computed force and the instrumentfeed rate. In the event the computed force is increased to effect thedesired advancement of the energy applicator 184, feed rate calculator284 reduces the instrument feed rate. This reduction of instrument feedrate reduces the likelihood that the manipulator will advance the energyapplicator 184 at a speed above which the accuracy of the application ofthe energy applicator 184 to the tissue will be adversely effected.

In some versions of this invention, the feed rate calculator, based onthe magnitude of the computed force and reference to one of the look uptables 286, determines a coefficient. This coefficient represents theextent to which the defined feed rate should be scaled as a function ofthe magnitude of the computed force.

Feed rate calculator 284 multiplies the defined feed rate by the abovesix coefficients. The product of this process is the instrument feedrate. This is the rate at which the energy applicator 184 should beadvanced along the current path segment.

An additional input into feed rate calculator 284 is a signal assertedfrom a below discussed force overrider 375, also a component of the toolpath force calculator 278. In response to the assertion of a signal fromthe force overrider 375, feed rate calculator 284 outputs a zero speedinstrument feed rate. Often feed rate calculator 284 ramps theinstrument to the zero speed feed rate. Once the force overrider 375stops asserting the signal to the feed rate calculator 284, based on theinput of other commands from the practitioner, the feed rate calculator284 returns to outputting a non zero speed instrument feed rate.

A path interpolator (PATH INTRPLTR) 288, seen in FIG. 16B, is anothersub-module component of the tool path force calculator 278. Pathinterpolator 288 determines target positions for coordinate system EAPP.The pose of distal end of the instrument energy applicator 184 isunderstood to be fixed relative to coordinate system EAPP. These targetpositions are points along which the distal end of energy applicator 184should travel to perform the desired task. Inputs into the pathinterpolator include: the data defining the origin and terminus of apath segment; the data indicating if the segment is straight or curvedand, if curved, the characteristics of the curve. Another input into thepath interpolator 288 is the instrument feed rate from feed ratecalculator 284. This is the rate at which the instrument should travelalong the path segment as determined by the feed rate calculator 284.

Based on the above input variables, the path interpolator 288 determinesthe target position of the distal end of the energy applicator 184according to the following steps:

-   1) The origin of coordinate system EAPP is assumed to be at an    initial position. The initial position is a position along the path    segment over which the energy applicator 184 should travel. If the    energy applicator 184 is at the beginning point of the segment, this    point is the initial position of coordinate system EAPP. Both the    initial position and the target position are points in the bone    coordinate system BONE.-   2) Based on the instrument feed rate, the distance along which the    energy applicator 184 would travel along the segment in a single    time frame is calculated. In some versions, the period of a time    frame is 0.1 to 2 milliseconds.-   3) Based on the initial position, the length of the calculated    distance and the location of the segment terminus, path interpolator    288 generates data defining the target position. A further variable    used to determine target positions are data from the tool path    generator describing the characteristics of the path segment:    straight or curved; and, if curved, the radius of curvature.-   4) Steps 1 through 3 are repeated until it is determined that the    coordinate system EAPP has reached the terminus of the path segment.    After the calculation of the first target position spaced from the    segment origin, the target position calculated in each frame is    employed as the initial position upon which the calculation of the    next frame's target position is based.-   5) Once the target position equals the terminus position for a path    segment, interpolator 288 repeats steps 1 through 4 to generate a    set of target positions that are located along the new segment.

During the time period of a single frame, the distance the energyapplicator 184 is able to travel may be greater than the distance to theterminus position for the current segment. If the path interpolator 288determines that the energy applicator 184 would be in this state, theinterpolator, for a time point starting when it is determined that theenergy applicator 184 would be at the terminus of the current pathsegment, generates data indicating where the energy applicator 184should be located at along the next path segment at the end of thatframe.

The target positions are output from the path interpolator 288 to aseries of cascaded running average filters 290, (RNING AVG FILTER), alsoa component of the tool path force calculator 278. The running averagefilters 290 average the individual target positions to produce filteredtarget positions. The particular running average filters employed inthis invention are finite impulse response filters. The running averagefilters generate filtered target positions as a function of time, thelength of the filter. This time period is typically between 5 and 50milliseconds. Consequently, the resulting distance filtered is afunction of filter time period and instrument feed rate.

Cascaded running average filters are employed in this process to ensurethat higher order derivatives of the target positions are continuous. Insome versions, three cascaded filters are employed. This makes theresulting filtered path have continuous derivatives up through jerk.This filtering essentially ensures that the actuators are not drivenbeyond their capabilities to advance the energy applicator 184 along thetool path 248.

The filtering performed by these filters is illustrated by reference toFIG. 17. Here, points 294 and 302 represent, respectively, the initialand final target positions of the energy applicator 184 as it movesalong path segment 297. Point 302 is also the initial position alongfrom which the energy applicator 184 moves as it travels along pathsegment 310. Path segment 297 is completely linear. In the runningaverage process, filters average the locations of a number of pointsalong the portion of the path being averaged to determine a meanlocation. Points 296 and 298 are two spaced apart target positions alongpath segment 297. If target positions between points 296 and 298 form astraight line and the distance between the points is greater than thedistance the energy applicator 184 travels during the length of thefilter, the results of this running average form a straight line. As inany filter, there is a lag in time between the input of these positionsto the output of the equivalent filtered output positions.

During this running average process, it should be understood that, toproduce the filtered target position equivalent to point 296 data,regarding the unfiltered target positions behind point 296 are inputvariables into the filters.

Target position 302 is the origin of path segment 310. Path segment 310is linear and angles away from path segment 297. The running averagefilter 290 eventually produces filtered target positions from targetposition 299, a point on path segment 297 and target position 303, apoint on path segment 310. The resultant averaged target positions arerepresented by segment 314. These filtered target positions are based onthe assumption that the distance between target positions 299 and 303 isgreater than the distance the energy applicator 184 travels during thelength of the filter. Here, point 312 is identical in position to point299. Point 316 is identical in position to point 303. Point 318 isidentical to point 305. The set of filtered target positions betweenfiltered target positions points 312 and 316 defines a curve. This curverepresents the averaged transition from the target positions definingsegment 297 to the target positions defining segment 310. From filteredtarget position 316 to filtered target position 318 the set of targetpositions is linear. This is because during this portion of theaveraging process no points other than those along path segment 310 areinput into the averaging equation.

Target position 320 is the terminus of straight segment 310 and theorigin of curved segment 330. Based on the locations of the pointsbounded by and including target position 320 and target position 332, apoint in the middle of curved segment 330, filters 290 produce anotherset of averaged target positions. These averaged target positions arerepresented by segment 340. Segment 340 extends between filtered targetposition 338 and filtered target position 342. Given that targetposition 320 is the terminus of linear path segment 310, thecorresponding filtered target position, point 338 is slightly displacedfrom the actual position. In locations where the target positions to befiltered define a curve, the filtered versions of these target positionstypically define a curve which has a larger radius than the radius ofpoints being filtered.

For some procedures it is desirable to substantially minimize thedifference between the filtered and unfiltered target positions. Onesuch procedure is the forming of bores in bones. Another procedure isthe precise shaping of bone to facilitate precise seating of an implant.For these procedures, the manipulator is set to reduce the defined ratethat is applied to the feed calculator 284, (process not shown). Thisresults in the generation of filtered target positions that define pathsegments that are essentially identical to the path segments defined bythe unfiltered set of target positions.

The filtered target positions are applied to the curvature calculator291. The curvature calculator 291, based on data defining multiplespaced apart filtered target positions, determines the curvature of thecurrent filtered path. Data representative of this curvature areforwarded to the feed rate calculator 284 as the PATH CRVTR variable.

The filtered target positions are also forwarded to a target locationcoordinate transformer 354, also a sub-module component of the tool pathforce calculator 278. Coordinate transformer 354 maps each filteredtarget position, which is in coordinate system BONE into coordinatesystem MNPL. This filtered target position of the origin of coordinatesystem EAPP is applied to an energy applicator force calculator 358,also part of tool path force calculator 278.

A second input into calculator 358 is a representation of the actualposition of coordinate system EAPP. In many implementations of thisinvention, the commanded position is employed as the representation ofthe actual position. The commanded position is the position component ofthe commanded pose. One advantage of employing the commanded position asthe representation of actual position is that it is a leading indicatorof the actual position. This feed forward effect facilitates responsivecontrol of the movement of the instrument. This fosters movement of theenergy applicator 184 that only minimally deviates from the tool path.

When manipulator 50 is first activated, the initial commanded pose isdetermined by solving the forward kinematics of the end effector 110.This process is understood to mean determining the pose of coordinatesystem CMVB as a function of the joint angles of the shoulders 67 and 69and arms 68 and 70. This pose is relative to coordinate system MNPL.Since the origin of coordinate system EAPP is fixed relative tocoordinate system CMVB, the forward kinematic solution of the virtualrigid body results in a like determination of the first initial pose ofcoordinate system EAPP in coordinate system MNPL.

Energy applicator force calculator 358 determines a set of forces andtorques that would be applied to the virtual rigid body. In response tothe application of these forces and torques to the virtual rigid body,motion control processes cause manipulator 50 to advance coordinatesystem EAPP along the tool path 248. The forces and torques applied tothe virtual rigid body that results in the setting of the orientation ofthe instrument are not material to the calculations performed by thecalculator 358.

After this first determination of the initial pose of the origin ofenergy applicator coordinate system EAPP, manipulator controller 124assumes that at the end of each frame, the origin of coordinate systemEAPP moved to the commanded pose calculated at the start of the frame.This commanded pose is generated by a below described cut guide 390. Thecommanded position component of the commanded pose is supplied by thecut guide 390 to the energy applicator force calculator 358.

Accordingly, two inputs into the energy applicator force calculator 358are the commanded position of coordinate system EAPP and the nexttargeted position of this coordinate system. This latter position is theinput from the target location coordinate system transformer 354. Boththese positions are points in coordinate system MNPL. A third input intothe tool tip force generator is the velocity of coordinate system CMVBat the start of the frame, velocity V₀. The means by which velocity V₀is calculated is discussed below. The fourth input into the energyapplicator force calculator 358 is the velocity at which the energyapplicator 184 should move as it advances along the path, velocity V₁.Velocity V₁ is a vector based on the target position from the previousframe and the current target position. Velocity V₁ is the velocityrelative to the manipulator coordinate system MNPL. Velocity V₁therefore includes the effects of the movement of bone coordinate systemBONE relative to the manipulator coordinate system MNPL. Velocities V₀and V₁ are understood to include both linear and rotational components.

Energy applicator force calculator 358 calculates a force that wouldmove the origin of coordinate system EAPP from its current position tothe filtered target position. In one version of this invention,calculator 358 determines this force by determining the impulse thatneeds to be applied to the virtual rigid body at the origin ofcoordinate system EAPP. The impulse, I, is the change of momentum thatis applied to an object. Accordingly, impulse/change of momentum in itsmost general form, I, is calculated according to the formula

I=∫Fdt=m(v _(FNL) −v _(INTL))   (1)

Here, F is force; m is the mass of the object to which the impulse isapplied; v_(INTL) is the initial velocity; and v_(FNL) is the finalvelocity. The object is to calculate the force that would need to beapplied to the distal end tip of the energy applicator 184, which is theorigin of coordinate system EAPP, to cause the applicator to advance tovelocity V₁. Equation (1) assumes that the velocities are those presentat the center of mass of the object to which the force is applied andthe velocities are the velocities present at this point. While theinitial velocity V₀ is that of coordinate system CMVB and is known, thefinal velocity V₁ is the velocity of the energy applicator 184.

Force F is applied to the virtual rigid body. As mentioned above, forceF is not applied to the origin of coordinate system CMVB; this force isapplied to the origin of coordinate system EAPP. To account for thesefactors, the impulse equation is rewritten as follows:

$\begin{matrix}{{\left( {J_{SA}M^{- 1}J_{SA}^{T}} \right)F_{EAPP}} = \frac{{D_{xyz}V_{1}} - {J_{SA}V_{0}}}{\Delta \; t}} & (2)\end{matrix}$

Here, D_(xyz) is the direction in which the impulse is to be applied.Direction D_(xyz) includes two unit vectors. One of these unit vectorsdefines the direction along which the force is to act. The second unitvector defines the direction around which the torque is to act. Often,it is only necessary to calculate the force component. To accomplishthis, the torque component of vector D_(xyz) is set to the null vector.Force F_(EAPP) is a scalar force along direction D_(xyz). JacobianJ_(SA) is the Jacobian matrix from the origin of coordinate system CMVBexpressed in coordinate system CMVB to the origin of the energyapplicator coordinate system EAPP along the direction D_(xyz). BecauseJacobian J_(SA) only maps to the component along direction D_(xyz),J_(SA) is a non-square Jacobian. Matrix M is the mass/inertia of thevirtual instrument. Direction D_(xyz) is computed by the energyapplicator force calculator 358. The variables upon which directionD_(xyz) is based are the commanded position and filtered target positionof the energy applicator 184. By employing the direction D_(xyz) vector,Equation (2) is reduced from six equations and six unknowns to oneequation with one unknown.

It is further necessary to account for two additional factors. One isthat instrument and energy applicator 184 are modeled as a rigid bodyand the velocities are specified in a non-inertial coordinate system.This body is therefore subjected to inertial forces. The effect of theseinertial forces, which include torques, must be modeled. These inertialforces are calculated according to the following formula:

$\begin{matrix}{F_{inertial} = \begin{bmatrix}{{- \omega} \times V} \\{{- \omega} \times I\; \omega}\end{bmatrix}} & (3)\end{matrix}$

Here, F_(inertial) is a vector consisting of the inertial forces andtorques. Velocity V is the velocity of coordinate system CMVB.Rotational velocity ω is the rotational velocity of coordinate systemCMVB. Inertia I is the virtual inertia tensor in coordinate system CMVB.Both velocities ω and V are expressed in coordinate system CMVB

The second additional factor is that environmental forces discussedbelow, collective force F_(ENV), act on the virtual rigid body.Components of the environmental force include a joint limit force, aninterference limit force, a workspace boundary force and a dampingforce. An additional component of the environmental force is externalforces applied to the manipulator 50, the instrument 160 and the energyapplicator 184. The external forces include the effect of the resistanceof the tissue to which the energy applicator 184 is applied. Anothercomponent of the external force is the force the practitioner places onthe instrument. The components of environmental force F_(ENV) arediscussed in detail below.

Accordingly force F_(EAPP) is calculated according to the formula:

$\begin{matrix}{{\left( {J_{SA}M^{- 1}J_{SA}^{T}} \right)F_{EAPP}} = {\frac{{D_{xyz}V_{1}} - {J_{SA}V_{0}}}{\Delta \; t} - {J_{SA}{M^{- 1}\left( {F_{inertial} + F_{ENV}} \right)}}}} & (4)\end{matrix}$

Here, F_(inertial) are the inertial forces acting on the instrument andenergy applicator 184. Force F_(ENV) is received from a below discussedenvironmental force summer 379 and is expressed in coordinate systemCMVB. Time period Δt is equal to the integration time period employed bythe below discussed integrator 386.

In practice, if the energy applicator 184 is simply repositioned basedon the calculation of velocity vectors the position of the energyapplicator 184 has a tendency to drift from the path segment along whichthe applicator should advance. This drift occurs due to such factors asrounding errors, machine precision and the inherent limits associatedwith discrete time modeling. Drift can also occur as a consequence ofthe micro-environmental disturbances in the vicinity of the instrument.To compensate for this drift, a correction force is added to thecalculation of the force applied to the virtual rigid body. The generaldescription of these forces is:

$\frac{\epsilon \; \Delta \; d}{\Delta \; t^{2}} + \frac{{CF}_{EAPP}}{\Delta \; t}$

Distance Δd is defined to be the negative of the magnitude of thedistance the energy applicator 184 has drifted from the path segment. Inone implementation, distance Δd is computed by determining the negativeof the magnitude of the distance between the actual position and thetarget position. In one implementation, the commanded position isemployed as the representation of the actual position of the energyapplicator 184. Coefficients ϵ and C are scale factors. When the aboveterms are added to Equation (4), the final form of the equation to solvefor the force applied to the virtual rigid body at the origin ofcoordinate system EAPP is:

$\begin{matrix}{{\left( {{J_{SA}M^{- 1}J_{SA}^{T}} + {I\frac{C}{\Delta \; t}}} \right)F_{EAPP}} = {\frac{{D_{xyz}V_{1}} - {J_{SA}V_{0}}}{\Delta \; t} - {J_{SA}{M^{- 1}\left( {F_{inertial} + F_{ENV}} \right)}} - \frac{\epsilon \; \Delta \; d}{\Delta \; t^{2}}}} & (5)\end{matrix}$

Matrix I is the identity matrix.

The energy applicator force calculator 358 therefore solves for forceF_(EAPP), the force along direction D_(xyz) applied to the virtual rigidbody at the origin of coordinate system EAPP. In response to thepresence of force F_(EAPP), the motion control processes cause themanipulator 50 to advance energy applicator 184 along the path segmentat the appropriate velocity. As mentioned above F_(EAPP) is scalar.Force transformer module 362 transforms this scalar to force F_(INST).Force F_(INST) is the vector of forces and torques applied to thevirtual rigid body at the origin of coordinate system CMVB to advancethe energy applicator 184 at the desired velocity. These forces andtorques are calculated according to the following equation:

F_(INST)=J_(SA) ^(T)F_(EAPP)   (6)

Force F_(INST) is a vector consisting of three separate forces and threeseparate torques applied to the virtual rigid body at the origin ofcoordinate system CMVB. Force F_(INST) is expressed in coordinate systemCMVB.

The forces and torques comprising F_(INST) are applied from forcetransformer module 362 to a force summer 380. As described below, theforce summer 380 is another one of the behavior control modules thatruns on the manipulator controller 124.

Tool path force calculator 278 also includes an instrument orientationregulator 368 seen in FIG. 16C. Orientation regulator 368 determines theforces and torques that need to be applied to the virtual rigid body toensure that, as the manipulator 50 moves the instrument 160, theinstrument maintains an acceptable orientation relative to the tissueagainst which the energy applicator 184 is applied. Instrumentorientation regulation is desirable because as discussed above, theenergy applicator force calculator 358 generates data defining forcesand torques applied to the virtual rigid body that result in theadvancement of the energy applicator 184 when in the semi-autonomousmode. External forces and torques are also applied to the manipulator50, instrument 160 and energy applicator 184. In response to theseexternal forces, manipulator 50 computes additional forces and torquesthat are applied to the virtual rigid body. The application of eitherone of these sets of forces and torques to the virtual rigid body canresult in the manipulator 50 positioning the instrument so that theinstrument appreciably drifts from an acceptable range of orientations.Should the instrument drift from this range of orientations, theefficiency of the energy applicator 184 may be reduced. Also, as aresult of this orientation drift, the instrument may move to a positionin which it could potentially abut other tissue or other instrumentsadjacent the tissue against which the energy applicator 184 is applied.This contact could inhibit the further advancement of the energyapplicator 184.

Orientation regulator 368 determines the restoring forces and torquesthat need to be applied to the virtual rigid body to prevent this drift.

In most versions, orientation regulator 368 is set to operate when themanipulator advances the instrument in the semi-autonomous mode. Whencommands are first entered to begin semi-autonomous advancement of theinstrument, orientation regulator 368 defines a reference surface 369that is located above the distal end of the energy applicator 184, asshown in FIG. 18A. To perform this process, orientation regulator 368 isrequired to know the actual pose of the instrument. In some versions,the commanded pose is employed as the representation of the actual pose.In the Figures, surface 369 is depicted as a plane but in practice isnot so limited. Reference surface 369 is typically located approximately5 to 20 cm above the distal end of the energy applicator 184. In someversions, the reference surface is positioned to intersect the origin ofcoordinate system CMVB. If the reference surface is a plane, uponmanipulator initialization, regulator 368 often defines the plane asbeing perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the instrument 160. Theorientation regulator 368 then defines an aperture 370 in the referencesurface 369, as shown in FIG. 18B. Aperture 370 is typically, but notlimited to, a circle. The aperture 370 is centered around the pointwhere the longitudinal axis of the instrument or energy applicator 184intersect the reference surface 369. In the described version, theseaxes are assumed to be linear and are collectively referred to as the“common axis”. In the figures, this point of intersection is called outas centering point 371. If aperture 370 is in the form of a circle, theaperture may have a radius of between 2 to 5 cm. Surface 369 andaperture 370 are typically fixed relative to the coordinate system BONE.This ensures that the representation of these geometric landmarks movewith the patient. The surface 369 and aperture 370 are typically definedin either manipulator coordinate system MNPL or bone coordinate systemBONE.

At the start of the frame, the orientation regulator 368 has the datadescribing the commanded pose of the instrument 160. Owing to therepositioning of the instrument 160 by the manipulator 50, the commonaxis may be displaced from the centering point 371 as seen in FIG. 18D.This displacement occurs because neither aperture 370 nor centeringpoint 371 moves with the displacement of the instrument and energyapplicator 184. If the instrument 160 is so displaced, orientationregulator 368 determines an orientation restoring force that, applied tothe virtual rigid body, results in manipulator 50 moving the instrumentso that the common axis moves towards the centering point 371.

The process by which orientation regulator 368 determines theorientation restoring forces and torques start with the orientationregulator determining the point along the common axis that intersectsthe reference surface 369. Orientation regulator 368 determines thecurrent location of the common axis based on representation of theactual pose, the commanded pose. Orientation regulator 368 thendetermines the distance from this point to the centering point 371.Based on these data, the orientation regulator 368 determines therestoring forces and torques that would pivot instrument 160 towardscentering point 371. In one version, these forces and torques aredetermined according to the following formula:

F _(R_MAG) =f(DIST_(INST-CP))+f(V _(INST-CP))   (7)

In some cases:

f(DIST_(INST-CP))=K _(ORNT)DIST_(INST-CP)   (7A)

f(V _(INST-CP))−D _(ORNT) V _(INST-CP)   (7B)

Here, F_(R_MAG) is the magnitude of the restoring force applied to thevirtual rigid body along the reference surface 369 to pivot theinstrument towards the centering point. Force F_(R_MAG) would act alongthe vector from the point where the instrument axis intersects referencesurface 369 to the centering point 371. In Equation (7), force F_(R_MAG)has a distance component and a velocity component. DistanceDIST_(INST-CP) is the distance between the point where the common axisintersects reference surface 369 and centering point 371. DistanceDIST_(INST-CP) is a positive scalar. Velocity V_(INST-CP) is the timederivative of distance DIST_(INST-CP).

Coefficient K_(ORNT) is a spring coefficient. This coefficient may bevariable. One reason for this is that when the common axis is very closeto the centering point 371, it may not be necessary to apply anappreciable restoring force to the instrument. This is because, while itis desirable that the common axis be located on the centering point 371,it is not a requirement for the operation of the manipulator.Accordingly, when the common axis is relatively close to the centeringpoint 371, spring constant K_(ORNT) may be relatively low or even zero.If the common axis is spaced further from centering point 371, it may bedesirable to increase the application of these restoring forces andtorques.

Coefficient D_(ORNT) is a damping coefficient. The damping coefficientmay be variable. In some versions, this coefficient is a function ofdistance DIST_(INST-CP) and/or velocity V_(INST-CP). Varying coefficientD_(ORNT) may be desirable to enhance the stability of the movement ofthe instrument.

In FIG. 19 the magnitude of the distance component of the force inEquation (7) is shown. In this Figure, there is a steep increase in theapplication of the force from inflection point 377 to peak 378.Inflection point 377 is located at the perimeter of aperture 370.Accordingly, should the common axis continue beyond this location, theorientation regulator 368 generates data indicating that a significantrestoring force needs to be applied to the virtual rigid body tomaintain the instrument within the aperture. The magnitude of thisrestoring force significantly increases as the instrument movesincrementally beyond aperture 371.

Orientation regulator 368 may determine that the instrument has moved anappreciable distance beyond aperture 370. This is the distance at whichpeak 378 is located. If orientation regulator 368 determines thiscondition exists, the regulator 368 no longer generates data indicatingthat a large restoring force should be applied. This is because theremay be instances, when the instrument is being displaced in asemi-autonomous mode, it is desirable to move instrument outside thenormal range of orientations. For example, there may be an obstacle thatblocks advancement of the energy applicator 184 along the programmedpath segment. This obstacle might be a protruding tissue or a surgicalinstrument. So that this obstacle does not block the advancement of theenergy applicator 184, the instrument may need to assume an orientationoutside of the normal range of orientations. Alternatively, thepractitioner may attempt to force the reorientation of the instrument160 without first depressing button 172. Should this event occur, thefact that the orientation regulator 368 allows the instrument to moveoutside of the normal range of orientations allows the practitioner toengage in such reorienting of the instrument.

Accordingly, as the instrument moves more than 0.5 to 2.0 cm beyond theaperture, the magnitude of the distance component ramps down to nominallevels. This level may equal zero. Prior to allowing this force to fallto zero, the manipulator may present a message on the user interfacerequesting that the practitioner confirm that the orientation regulator368 at least temporarily suspend regulation of instrument orientation.While awaiting this confirmation, the manipulator may suspendadvancement of the energy applicator 184 along the path segment.

Once orientation regulator 368 starts to generate data indicating thatonly a nominal/zero orientation restoring force F_(R_MAG) should beapplied to the virtual rigid body, the practitioner may manuallyreorient the instrument so that the axis is at or in close proximity tothe aperture 370. Should this event occur, the orientation regulator 368may return to outputting data indicating that a more than nominalrestoring force should be applied. In some constructions of themanipulator 50, for the orientation regulator 368 to return tooutputting a more than nominal orientation restoring force, thepractitioner is required to press and release button 172. Orientationregulator 368 redefines the reference surface 369, the aperture 370 andcentering point 371 based on instrument orientation when button 172 isreleased. Once these landmarks are redefined, the orientation regulator368 returns to outputting more than nominal orientation restoringforces.

In practice, orientation regulator 368 does not actually executeEquation (7) to determine the orientation restoring force F_(R_MAG).Instead, the orientation regulator 368 maintains look up tables ofrestoring forces (tables not illustrated). The inputs to determine theappropriate restoring force are representations of distanceDIST_(INST-CP) and velocity V_(INST-CP).

Once restoring force F_(R_MAG) is determined, orientation regulator 368converts this force into a vector. Orientation regulator 368 performsthis conversion by multiplying force F_(R_MAG) by the unit directionvector from the point where the instrument axis intersects the referenceplane 368 to the centering point 371. The unit direction vector isexpressed in coordinate system MNPL. This multiplication produces aforce vector F_(RSTR) also in coordinate system MNPL. This vectordefines the restoring force that is applied to the virtual rigid bodywhere the longitudinal axis of the body instrument intersects thereference surface 369. This point is not the origin of coordinate systemCMVB.

Orientation regulator 368 therefore converts force F_(RSTR) into theequivalent forces and torques that should be applied to the virtualrigid body at the origin of coordinate system CMVB. This conversion isperformed according to the following formula:

F _(ORNT) =J _(ORNT) ^(−T) F _(RSTR)   (8)

Force F_(ORNT) is the force and torque vector that is applied to theorigin of coordinate system CMVB to reposition the instrument axistowards the centering point. This force is expressed in coordinatesystem CMVB. Jacobian J_(ORNT) is the Jacobian from where the instrumentaxis intersects the reference surface 369 expressed in coordinate systemMNPL to the origin of coordinate system CMVB expressed in coordinatesystem CMVB. These forces and torques, which are in the coordinatesystem CMVB are also applied by the tool path force calculator 278 tototal force summer 380.

Orientation regulator 368 receives as inputs other signals. Thesesignals include signals from instrument button 172 and the belowdiscussed force overrider 375. The responses of the orientationregulator 368 to the assertion and negation of these signals isdiscussed below.

FIG. 16D illustrates another module integral to the tool path forcecalculator 278, the force overrider 375. One input into force overrider375 are signals representative of the forces and torques applied toforce torque sensor 108. A second input into force overrider 375 aresignals representative of the force F_(INST) that application of whichto the virtual rigid body results in the advancement of the energyapplicator 184 on the tool path. These signals are from the energyapplicator force calculator 358. These signals are shown coming from theforce transformer 362. A third input into the force overrider 375 isforce F_(ORNT), collectively the forces and torques the tool orientationforce regulator 368 determines would maintain the instrument axis withinaperture 370. A fourth input into force overrider is signalsrepresentative of the power applied by the energy applicator 184. For aninstrument having a motor as a power generating unit, the torqueproduced may function as indicia of instrument power. The current drawnby the instrument may be employed as a representation of the powerapplied by the energy applicator 184. In FIG. 16D this is why the signalENGRY APP PWR is shown coming from the tool controller 132.

Each of these signals is thus representative of a force or torque thatis applied to or output by the instrument 160 and/or energy applicator184. Force overrider 375 compares each of these forces/torques to one ormore limit values. If one set of these forces/torques exceeds a lowerlimit value, the force overrider deactivates the instrument and stopsthe advancement of the instrument. Depending on which set offorce/torques exceeded the limit value, the force overrider may notdeactivate the instrument and stop advancement until the limit value iscontinuously exceeded for a set time period. This delay may beprogrammed into the force overrider 375 to minimize the instances ofmomentary spikes in applied or output force/torque interruptingoperation of the manipulator. This delay period is typically between 10and 500 milliseconds. The deactivation of the instrument is representedby the assertion of a signal to an instrument manager 702 (FIG. 27). Inresponse to the receipt of this signal, instrument manager 702 sends acommand to the tool controller 132. This command causes the controller132 to negate the application of energization signals to the instrumentpower generating unit 163. The cessation of movement along the tool pathis represented by the assertion of a signal to the feed rate calculator284. In response to this signal, the feed rate calculator 284 ramps theinstrument feed rate to zero.

If one set of these forces/torques exceeds a higher limit level, forceoverrider 375 causes the manipulator to transition from semi-autonomousoperation to manual mode operation. As with the lower limit level, theforce overrider 375 may not cause this transition of the manipulator 50until after the particular force/torque limit is exceeded for acontinuous time period. This time period is typically less than the timeperiod associated with the corresponding force/torque lower limit. Thistime limit is lower because the sensing of higher magnitude applied oroutput force/torque means that there is a greater likelihood that themanipulator may be in an undesirable state. Reducing the time periodbefore which the force overrider 375 responds to this force/torqueinformation essentially ensures that when the higher limit level isexceeded, the overrider takes the corrective action associated with thiscondition instead of responding to the lesser corrective actionassociated with the lower limit force/torque level being exceeded.

To reset the operation of the manipulator to the manual mode, the forceoverrider 375 asserts signals to the energy applicator force calculator358 and the tool orientation regulator 368. When energy applicator forcecalculator 358 receives this command signal from overrider 375, thecalculator ramps force F_(INST) to zero. When tool orientation regulatorreceives this command signal from overrider 375, the regulator rampsforce F_(ORNT) to zero.

From the above, it is now understood that tool path force calculator 278produces information regarding the forces and torques that are appliedto the center of mass of the virtual rigid body to: (1) move the energyapplicator 184 along the path segment; and (2) maintain the instrumentwithin an acceptable range of orientations. Data describing both theseforces and torques are applied to a total force summer 380. The forcesand torques used to advance the energy applicator 184 and maintain toolorientation are calculated separately. Accordingly, in FIG. 13B, thesetwo sets of forces and torques are depicted as two separate addends intoforce summer 380.

Force summer 380 is a separate behavior control software module run onthe manipulator controller 124. An additional addend into force summer380 is the environmental force F_(ENV) output from environmental forcesummer 379. Force summer 380, based on these three inputs, produces twosums: forces F_(TTL); and torques T_(TTL). These sums are, respectively,the totals of the forces and torques that the manipulator would apply tothe center of mass of the virtual rigid body. Both forces F_(TTL) andtorques T_(TTL) are expressed in coordinate system CMVB. In both themanual or semi-autonomous modes of operation, manipulator 50 advancesinstrument 160 as a function of these total forces and torques.

An acceleration calculator 384, another behavior control software modulerun on the manipulator controller 124, receives the total force andtorque vectors, respectively, F_(TTL) and T_(TTL) from force summer 380.In FIG. 13B a single connection from summer 380 to calculator 384 isshown. Acceleration calculator 384 determines the extent to which theorigin of coordinate system CMVB should be accelerated based on theapplication of forces F_(TTL) and torques T_(TTL). This acceleration isboth translational and rotational. As mentioned above the instrument andthe energy applicator 184 are modeled as a virtual rigid body. Theequations of motion for this body are:

F _(TTL) =m{dot over (V)}+ω×V   (9)

T _(TTL) =I{dot over (ω)}+ω×Iω  (10)

Here: m is the virtual mass of the virtual rigid body; V is the linearvelocity of coordinate system CMVB; {dot over (V)} is the linearacceleration of coordinate system CMVB; ω is the rotational velocity ofcoordinate system CMVB; {dot over (ω)} is the rotational acceleration ofcoordinate system CMVB. These velocities and accelerations are expressedin coordinate system CMVB. Tensor I is the virtual inertia tensor of thevirtual rigid body expressed in coordinate system CMVB.

Therefore, acceleration calculator 384 is also loaded with the virtualmass and virtual inertia of the virtual rigid body. This value istypically constant. Acceleration calculator 384 assumes that linearvelocity V and angular rotation ω are the immediately past calculatedvalues for these variables. Acceleration calculator 384, given the aboveknown variables is therefore able to solve for both the linear androtational accelerations, respectively, {dot over (V)} and {dot over(ω)}. It should be appreciated that {dot over (V)} and {dot over (ω)}are vectors.

Vectors {dot over (V)} and {dot over (ω)} are both applied to anintegrator 386, another behavior control software module run on themanipulator controller 124. Integrator 386 also receives from the belowdescribed cut guide 390 a commanded pose and a commanded velocity forcoordinate system CMVB expressed in coordinate system MNPL. Thesecommanded pose and commanded velocity data are used by the integrator386 as the initial conditions for the integrations for the currentframe. The integrator 386 converts the velocity from coordinate systemMNPL to coordinate system CMVB. This conversion is necessary to employthe velocity as an initial condition in the integrations.

For the first frame integrations upon manipulator initialization, aspreviously described, the commanded pose is based on the data from thebelow discussed forward kinematics module 562. The commanded velocity isset to zero.

Integrator 386 performs a first integration to determine both the linearand rotational velocities, V and ω, of coordinate system CMVB.Integrator 386 then rotates linear velocity V into its equivalent inmanipulator coordinate system MNPL. The integrator 386 may then limitthe magnitude of these velocities to ensure that the motion of themanipulator is within the operational limits of the manipulator. Thisvelocity limiting may also be performed to ensure that the rate at whichthe manipulator advances the instrument does not exceed the desiredrates for the procedure. Integrator is able to independently limit themagnitudes of the linear and rotational velocities.

These velocities are then integrated to determine the new position ofthe origin of the coordinate system CMVB in coordinate system MNPL.

Integrator 386 also converts the rotational velocities to quaternionrates. These quaternion rates are expressed in coordinate system MNPL.The quaternion rates are integrated to obtain the quaternions. Thequaternions are then used to form the rotation matrix of the neworientation of the coordinate system CMVB in the manipulator coordinatesystem MNPL. Collectively, this rotation matrix and the vector definingthe position of the coordinate system CMVB in the manipulator coordinatesystem MNPL form the homogenous transformation matrix of the coordinatesystem CMVB with respect to manipulator coordinate system MNPL. Thistransformation matrix specifies a pose of the virtual rigid body. Thispose is applied to the below described cut guide.

Integrator 386 also monitors the state of switch 176. When theintegrator 386 determines that switch 176 has been transitioned from theasserted to the not asserted state, the integrator momentarily rampsdown the signals indicating the velocities V and ω to zero. This rampingdown is performed prior to the second integration to both the linear androtational velocity. Integrator 386 does not hold the velocity to zero.This allows other forces such as the below described back drive forcesand joint limit forces to continue to influence the movement of themanipulator after switch 176 is no longer asserted.

In some versions, integrator 386 does not directly ramp the velocity tozero. Instead, when switch 176 is no longer asserted, the velocity isindirectly driven to zero by momentarily increasing the below describeddamping force applied to force summer 379.

The results of the velocity and position integrations are applied to acut guide 390. Cut guide 390 is a behavior controller software modulethat runs on the manipulator controller 124. The cut guide 390 is thesoftware module that, when the manipulator is operated in the manualmode, prevents the manipulator from positioning the energy applicator184 beyond the boundaries of the volume in which the applicator is to beapplied. Cut guide 390 is thus the software module that ensures that themanual mode positioning of the energy applicator 184 is boundaryconstrained.

When the manipulator 50 is operated in the semi-autonomous mode the pathsegments along which the energy applicator 184 advances are inherentlywithin the boundaries of the volume in which the energy applicator 184should be applied. Cut guide 390 remains the initial recipient of thepose generated by the integrator 386. Thus, when the manipulator 50operates in the semi-autonomous mode, cut guide 390 functions as asafety that prevents unintended movement of the energy applicator 184beyond the defined boundary.

One input into cut guide 390 is the pose generated by integrator 386.This integrator-generated pose is of the origin of coordinate systemCMVB relative to coordinate system MNPL. A second input is the velocity,linear and rotational, generated by integrator 386. A third input intothe cut guide 390 is the data from the boundary generator 232 thatdefine the boundaries between the volume where the energy applicator 184is and is not to be applied. In FIGS. 20A, 20B and 20C, these boundariesare called out by line segments 452, 454 and 456. FIGS. 20A-20C areunderstood to be two-dimensional section views through athree-dimensional surface.

Cut guide 390 also receives a fourth input from coordinate systemtransformer 272. These are data defining transformations of coordinatesystems relative to each other. These include transformations relatingcoordinate systems CMVB, EAPP, BONE and MNPL.

The above pose and velocity inputs are initially expressed in coordinatesystem MNPL. Cut guide 390 transforms each of these inputs intocoordinate system BONE, step 482. This transformation is performedbecause the boundaries beyond which the energy applicator 184 should notbe applied are typically fixed in coordinate system BONE. For ease ofprocessing, it is therefore more convenient to perform the followinganalyses in bone coordinate system BONE.

The operation of the cut guide 390 is initially explained by referenceto the flow charts of FIGS. 21A-21C. While not shown as a step, cutguide 390, based on the previous commanded pose, calculates the previouscommanded position of the origin of coordinate system EAPP. Based on theintegrator-generated pose, the cut guide 390 calculates anintegrator-generated position of the origin of coordinate system EAPP.

In a step 484, cut guide 390 identifies any boundary-defining tiles theenergy applicator 184 could cross during the frame. This step is oftendescribed as a broad phase search. Step 484 is performed by identifyingthe set of tiles that are within a defined distance of the previouscommanded position of the energy applicator 184. In FIG. 20A, this ispoint 458. This distance is a function of: the dimensions of the energyapplicator 184; the velocity of the energy applicator 184 relative tothe tiles (the velocity of advancement during the past frame isacceptable); the time period of the frame; a scalar defining acharacteristic size of the boundary defining sections; and a roundingfactor.

As a result of the execution of broad phase search, step 484, cut guide390 may determine that, in the frame for which this analysis is beingperformed, all of the tiles are outside of the defined distance, step486. This means that, by the end of frame for which this analysis isbeing performed, the energy applicator 184 will not have advanced to alocation beyond the boundary. This is illustrated by FIG. 20A where theintegrator-defined position of the energy applicator 184, point 460, isspaced well away from the closest boundary.

Since the continued advancement of the energy applicator 184 is withinthe boundary of the volume in which the energy applicator 184 is to beapplied, the cut guide 390 does not modify either the pose or thevelocity of coordinate system CMVB as generated by the integrator 386.In a step 488, the cut guide 390 outputs a commanded pose and acommanded velocity. If this version of step 488 is executed as a resultof it being determined that all the boundary tiles are outside of thedefined distance, the pose and velocity generated by integrator 386 areoutput by the cut guide 390 as a commanded pose and a commandedvelocity.

As part of the execution of the above version and the other belowdescribed versions of step 488, cut guide 390 transforms the commandedpose and velocity from coordinate system CMVB so this pose and velocityare expressed in coordinate system MNPL. The commanded velocity, it isunderstood is a vector that comprises both linear and rotationalcomponents.

As a result of the execution of step 484, cut guide 390 mayalternatively identify a broad set of boundary-defining tiles that arewithin the defined distance of the energy applicator 184. In a step 490,the cut guide 390 then identifies a narrow set of boundary-definingtiles that are within the broad set of tiles that the energy applicator184 could cross. This step is often referred to as the narrow phasesearch. This narrow phase search can be performed by initially defininga bounding volume. This bounding volume extends between what areconsidered to be initial and final positions of the energy applicator184. If this is the first execution of step 490, the initial position isset to the previous commanded position; the final position is set to theintegrator-generated position.

In its most elemental form, this bounding volume is a line segmentbetween the initial and final positions of the energy applicator 184.The bounding volume may have a cross sectional area geometry that isconstant along the length of the volume. The bounding volume may have across sectional section that comprises one or more borders that iscurved and/or straight in shape. The bounding volume may have a shapethat is function of the shape of the energy applicator 184 and theinitial and final orientations of the energy applicator 184.

Once the bounding volume is defined, as part of the narrow phase searchof step 490, the cut guide 390 determines which, if any, of the broadset of tiles are intersected by this volume. The tiles intersected bythe bounding volume are the narrow set tiles.

As a result of evaluation of step 490 it may be determined that none ofthe broad set of tiles are intersected by the bounding volume; thenarrow set is an empty set. This is the evaluation of step 492. If thisevaluation tests true, cut guide 390 interprets this condition asindicating that the final position of the energy applicator 184 iswithin the volume defined by the boundaries. If the energy applicator184 is so located, cut guide 390 proceeds to the above-described step488. If this is the first execution of step 490, in this version of step488, the pose and velocity generated by integrator 386 are output by thecut guide 390 as a commanded pose and a commanded velocity.

Alternatively, as a result of the evaluation of step 492 it may bedetermined that the bounding volume crosses one or more tiles; thenarrow set contains one or more tiles. If this is the determination ofthe evaluation of step 492, the cut guide 390 interprets this conditionas indicating that the final position of the energy applicator 184 isbeyond a boundary. This condition is illustrated by FIG. 20B. Here point462 is the initial position of the energy applicator 184. Point 469 isthe final position.

If the condition of FIG. 20B exists, a step 493 is performed todetermine which of the narrow set of tiles the energy applicator 184would cross first. If the bounding volume is a line, the cut guide 390,for each tile, determines the percentage of distance the energyapplicator 184 will advance during the frame prior to the crossing ofthe applicator with the tile. The tile crossed at the lowest percentageof distance is the tile understood to be crossed first. If the boundingvolume has a non-zero cross sectional area, processes not part of thisinvention are used to determine crossing distances.

By reference to FIG. 22 it can be seen that the boundary defining tilesclosest to the energy applicator 184 may not be the tiles that theenergy applicator 184 could cross. Here as a result of the process ofstep 484, it was initially determined that tiles 506-522 are withindistance d, a volume represented by dashed circle 501, the distance theenergy applicator 184 could potentially move within the time frame.

The closest tile to the energy applicator 184 is tile 518. However, theenergy applicator 184 is moving along a trajectory that is, for purposesof illustration, straight and downward in FIG. 22, towards point 469.Therefore, in the evaluation of step 493, cut guide determines that tile512 is the tile the bounding volume would intersect.

Once cut guide 390 generally determines which boundary-defining tile theenergy applicator 184 will cross, in a step 494 cut guide 390 determinesa time t_(CNTC) and a point p_(CNTC). Time t_(CNTC) is the time periodrelative to the start of the frame, when the energy applicator 184 willcross the boundary. This time is determined based on the percentage ofdistance the energy applicator 184 will advance during the frame priorto contacting the boundary. This determination is made based on theassumption that, during any given frame, the velocity of the energyapplicator 184 is constant. Point p_(CNTC) is the point in coordinatesystem BONE where the energy applicator 184 will cross the tile. Thispoint is determined by calculating where the path of advancement of theenergy applicator 184 crosses the tile. Both calculations use as inputvariables the initial and final positions of the energy applicator 184and data defining the perimeter of the boundary tile. Theselocation-specifying data are in coordinate system BONE.

Also as part of step 494, cut guide 390 determines the pose ofcoordinate system CMVB and the velocity of this coordinate system attime t_(CNTC). This pose is calculated based on the initial pose ofcoordinate system CMVB, the initial velocity of this coordinate systemand time t_(CNTC). If this is the first execution of step 494, cut guide390 assigns the previous commanded pose of coordinate system CMVB to bethe initial pose. If this is the first execution of step 494, cut guide390 assigns the previous commanded velocity of coordinate system CMVB tobe the initial velocity. Both the linear and rotational velocities ofcoordinate system CMVB are assumed to be constant throughout the frame.Therefore, both the initial linear and rotational velocities are assumedto be the linear and rotational velocities at time t_(CNTC). The abovedeterminations are made with reference to coordinate system BONE.

Also as part of step 494, the linear and rotational velocities ofcoordinate system EAPP are determined at time t_(CNTC). These velocitiesare based on the velocities of coordinate system CMVB and the fixed poseof coordinate system EAPP relative to coordinate system CMVB. The linearand rotational velocities of coordinate system EAPP are calculated withreference to coordinate system BONE.

Cut guide 390 also defines a boundary contact coordinate system, step496. This coordinate system is defined so as to have a z-axis that isorthogonal to the surface section of the boundary that would be crossedby the energy applicator 184. As part of the process of defining theboundary contact coordinate system, the position and orientation of thiscoordinate system relative to the coordinate system BONE is determined.The origin of this coordinate system is point p_(CNTC).

Cut guide 390 then determines a force F_(BNDR) applied to the virtualrigid body at the origin of coordinate system EAPP to stop the unwantedprogression of the energy applicator 184 beyond the boundary. The methodby which force F_(BNDR) is determined is explained by initial referenceto FIG. 23A. This Figure represents the velocities of coordinate systemCMVB and the energy applicator 184 as the applicator moves towardsboundary. For ease of illustration, velocities along only the X- andZ-axes of the boundary contact coordinate system are illustrated. Asseen in FIG. 23A, the energy applicator 184 moves at high velocities tothe right in the x-axis and downwardly in the z-axis. Simultaneously,the virtual rigid body, more particularly the origin of coordinatesystem CMVB, moves at slower velocities to the left in the X-axis andupwardly along the Z-axis. Owing to the orientation and relativemagnitude of these velocities, what is occurring in this motion is thatthe energy applicator 184 is rotating counterclockwise relative to thecoordinate system CMVB while there is some minor displacement of thevirtual rigid body.

Cut guide 390 determines a boundary constraining force applied to theorigin of coordinate system EAPP that prevents the energy applicator 184from advancing in the z-axis of the boundary contact coordinate system.

Accordingly, in step 530, the cut guide 390 transforms the positions andvelocities of coordinate system EAPP and the pose and velocities ofcoordinate system CMVB into the boundary contact coordinate system. In astep 532, the cut guide determines a scalar force F_(BNDR) that, ifapplied to the origin of coordinate system EAPP at time t_(CNTC), wouldstop the advancement of the applicator in the direction normal andtowards the boundary. As represented by arrow 457 in FIG. 23B, forceF_(BNDR) acts along the z axis in the boundary contact coordinatesystem. Cut guide 390 may use one of a number of different methods todetermine the magnitude of force F_(BNDR).

For example, it is possible to use an impulse method to compute forceF_(BNDR). In one such method, a version of Equation (5) with componentsexpressed in the boundary contact coordinate system is employed todetermine F_(BNDR). In this application of Equation (5), F_(BNDR) issubstituted for F_(EAPP). In this case velocity V₁ is the desiredvelocity of the energy applicator 184 at time t_(CNTC). Therefore, theZ-component of velocity V₁ is zero. This is because the goal of thisapplication of the Equation is to determine the force that, if appliedto the origin of coordinate system EAPP, would cause the Z-axis velocityto drop to zero relative to the boundary. The other components ofvelocity V₁ are not relevant. This is due to the choice of the directionvector D_(xyz) discussed below. Velocity V₀ is the velocity ofcoordinate system CMVB at the start of the frame. Time t_(CNTC) isemployed as Δt. The linear component of direction vector D_(xyz) is theunit vector defining the normal direction of the surface of the boundaryat point p_(CNTC). This vector is therefore [0, 0, 1]. The rotationalcomponent of vector D_(xyz) is set to the null vector. In thisapplication of Equation (5) J_(BNDRY) replaces J_(SA). JacobianJ_(BNDRY) is the Jacobian from the origin of coordinate system CMVB tothe origin of the boundary coordinate system along direction vectorD_(xyz).

In this application of Equation (5) mass matrix M is expressed inboundary contact coordinate system. Force F_(cg) _(ext) is the output offorce summer 380. For forces F_(inertial) and F_(cg) _(ext) to be usedthey must first be expressed in the boundary contact coordinate system.Components C and ϵ are often set to zero. This eliminates the need todetermine Δd.

There may be situations in which the energy applicator 184simultaneously contacts plural boundary-defining tiles. When the energyapplicator 184 is so positioned, the plural tiles simultaneously applyplural forces to the energy applicator 184. Collectively, these forcesmust displace the energy applicator 184 along a path that does not crossany of the tiles. Performing the calculations to determine the forcethat would need to be applied to the origin of coordinate system EAPP toensure this movement is a linear complementarity problem. This problemis of the form in which, for each force and velocity pair, the forcemust be equal to or greater than zero and the velocity also equal to orgreater than zero. To solve this problem it is therefore necessary forthe Jacobian matrix of this version of Equation (5) to include extrarows.

It should be understood also that this impulse is applied to a point onthe virtual rigid body, the origin of energy applicator 184 coordinatesystem EAPP that is spaced from the origin of coordinate system CMVB.Once F_(BNDRY) is determined, this scalar force is converted to anequivalent set of boundary constraining forces and torques, F_(B_C),that would need to be applied to the virtual rigid body at the origin ofcoordinate system CMVB, step 534. This conversion may be according tothe following formula:

F_(B_C)=J_(BNDRY) ^(T)F_(BNDRY)   (11)

Force F_(B_C) is expressed in the boundary contact coordinate system.

Force F_(B_C) is then summed with F_(cg) _(ext) . Using the methodsdescribed with reference to Equations (9) and (10), cut guide 390determines the new accelerations of the coordinate system CMVB, step536. The above sum of forces and torques are substituted for F_(TTL) andT_(TTL) in these applications of the Equations.

Based on these acceleration values, using the methods employed by theintegrator 386, the cut guide 390 determines the velocities ofcoordinate system CMVB at time t_(CNTC), using an integration intervalending at time t_(CNTC), step 538. If this is the first execution ofthis step, the beginning of the frame is the beginning of integrationinterval. If this is a subsequent execution of this step, thisintegration interval starts at a time after the beginning of the frame.

Next, a second execution of the methods employed by the integrator 386is performed to determine the velocities and pose of coordinate systemCMVB at the end of the frame. This second execution is performed usingan integration interval extending from time t_(CNTC) to the end of theframe.

The above integrator processes performed by the cut guide 390 areperformed in the boundary contact coordinate system. During a singleiteration of the boundary constraining force generating process, thepose of boundary contact coordinate system is fixed relative tocoordinate system BONE. Therefore, by performing these processes in theboundary contact coordinate system, the movement of the patient'sanatomy is taken into account when calculating the boundary constrainingforces. Often it is assumed that the boundary contact coordinate systemis an inertial coordinate system with constant velocity and noacceleration relative coordinate system MNPL during the integrationinterval. The outputs of these integrator processes are then convertedfrom boundary contact coordinate system to coordinate system BONE.

At this time in the boundary constraining process, the pose ofcoordinate system CMVB at time t_(CNTC) becomes the new initial pose ofthis coordinate system. From this pose, a new initial position ofcoordinate system EAPP is determined. This position is the position ofthe energy applicator 184 adjacent but not over the boundary. In FIG.20B, this is point 464. The pose of coordinate system CMVB at the end ofthe frame becomes the new final pose of this coordinate system, step540. From this pose a new final position of coordinate system EAPP isdetermined, step 542. In FIG. 20B this position is represented by point468. It should be understood that, as a result of the application ofF_(B_C), to the virtual rigid body, the position of coordinate systemEAPP moves along, but does not cross, the boundary. In FIG. 20B, this isrepresented as the advancement of the energy applicator 184 from point464 to point 468

It should further be appreciated that as a result of the application ofF_(B_C), there will be appreciable change in the position of coordinatesystem CMVB. This difference is represented by the differences inposition of point 165 from FIG. 23B to 23C. In comparison to thedepiction in FIG. 23B, in FIG. 23C, coordinate system CMVB is displacedboth downwardly and to the right more than it would if not subject tothe boundary constraining forces. This is represented by the dashed linerepresentation of the instrument 160 and energy applicator 184.

In FIG. 20B, the energy applicator 184 is shown advancing on a pathapproximately parallel and adjacent to boundary 454. Energy applicator184 of the virtual rigid body advances along this path until the end offrame.

After the advancement of the energy applicator 184 is constrained toprevent the applicator from crossing one boundary, there is apossibility that, within the same time frame, the energy applicator 184could cross a second boundary. This scenario is depicted in FIG. 20C.Here point 470 is the previously commanded position, the first initialposition, of the energy applicator 184. Point 472 represents theintegrator-generated position, the first final position, if advancementof the energy applicator 184 is not boundary constrained. It can be seenthat point 472 is beyond a boundary. Cut guide 390 therefore determinesa boundary constraining force that would need to be applied to thevirtual rigid body to prevent the energy applicator 184 from crossingboundary 454.

Point 471, is the point adjacent boundary 454 where, by applying a firstboundary constraining force, cut guide 390 prevents the energyapplicator 184 from crossing boundary 454. Point 471 is therefore thesecond initial position of the energy applicator 184 in the frame.

Point 476 represents the second final position of the energy applicator184 if the virtual rigid body is only subjected to a single boundaryconstraining force. In FIG. 20C it is observed that the path of travelbetween points 471 and 476 crosses boundary 456. Cut guide 390 istherefore further configured to prevent one boundary constrainingdiversion of the energy applicator 184 from causing the applicator tocross another boundary.

Cut guide 390 prevents this trespass by, after step 542 is executed,performing a subsequent narrow phase search of the tiles, step 490 isreexecuted. Prior to performing this subsequent narrow phase search,step 490, the cut guide executes a step 543. In step 543 the cut guide390 evaluates whether or not the cut guide 390 has performed a maximumnumber of allowed recalculations of the boundary constraining forceF_(BNDRY) that can be applied to the origin of coordinate system EAPP.The purposes of performing step 543 are discussed below. If the cutguide has not performed the maximum number of recalculations of theboundary constraining force, cut guide proceeds to the subsequent step490 reexecution of the narrow phase search.

In this subsequent narrow phase search process, the newly definedinitial and final positions of the energy applicator 184 are, in step490, employed to define a new bounding volume. Again also in step 490 adetermination is made regarding whether or not this volume intersectsany boundaries. During a subsequent execution of step 492, theevaluation may indicate that the set of tiles the bounding volumecrosses is the empty set. As with the first execution of step 492, ifthis evaluation tests true, the cut guide 390 interprets the results asindicating that, should the energy applicator 184 advance to the finalposition, the applicator will not cross the boundaries. This is theevaluation result the cut guide would make with regard to theadvancement of the energy applicator 184 from point 464 to 468 in FIG.20B.

As a result of this subsequent evaluation of step 492 testing true, cutguide 390 executes a version of step 488. It should be understood thatthis execution of step 488 is occurring after a second or laterexecution of step 492. Accordingly, in this version of step 488, the cutguide 390 outputs the last determined end of frame pose and lastdetermined end of frame velocity of coordinate system CMVB to be,respectively, the commanded pose and commanded velocity of thiscoordinate system.

In the second narrow phase search of energy applicator 184 advancementof FIG. 20C, the bounding volume is between points 471 and 476. Thisvolume crosses boundary 456. The subsequent evaluation of step 492 willtest false. Consequently, steps 493, 494, 496, 530, 532, 534, 536, 538,540, 542 and 543 are reexecuted. As a result of the reexecution of thesesteps, the cut guide 390 determines the characteristics of a subsequentboundary constraining force that needs to be applied to the virtualrigid body. Cut guide 390 then determines a subsequent final position towhich the energy applicator 184 would advance upon the application ofthis subsequent boundary constraining force.

In FIG. 20C it is seen that it is necessary to apply a subsequentboundary constraining force to the virtual rigid body to prevent theenergy applicator 184 from, at point 474, crossing the boundary. As aconsequence of the application of this subsequent boundary constrainingforce, the energy applicator 184, advances to point 478. The final poseof coordinate system CMVB when the energy applicator 184 is at thispoint 478 is the end-of-frame commanded pose output by the cut guide390.

Thus, for a single time frame in which the energy applicator 184 isadvanced, the cut guide 390 may perform multiple analyses to determinethe positions of the energy applicator 184 relative to the boundaries.If necessary, the cut guide 390 applies multiple boundary constrainingforces to the virtual rigid body to prevent the energy applicator 184from crossing boundaries.

In some versions, the cut guide is limited in the number of times, in asingle frame it can generate data regarding a boundary constrainingforce that should be applied to the virtual rigid body. This is due tolimitations in the processing capability of manipulator controller 124.In some versions, the cut guide is limited to between 4 and 16iterations and more often 6 to 12 iterations per frame. This is why thecut guide executes the evaluation of step 543. If the cut guidedetermines that it has performed the maximum number of boundaryconstraining force generations, the cut guide executes a version of step488. In this version of the execution of step 488, the last initial poseand velocity are output as, respectively, the commanded pose and thecommanded velocity for coordinate system CMVB. This is because this poseand velocity are the last pose and velocity stored by the cut guide 390for the state in which the energy applicator 184 is within theboundaries.

The commanded pose and commanded velocity of coordinate system CMVBrelative to coordinate system MNPL are the final output of the behaviorcontrol processes.

The commanded pose of coordinate system CMVB is applied to the inversekinematics module 542 shown in FIG. 13C. The inverse kinematics module542 is one of the motion control modules executed by the manipulatorcontroller 124. Based on the commanded pose and preloaded data, theinverse kinematic module 542 determines the desired joint angle of thejoints of the manipulator 50. The preloaded data are data that definethe geometry of the links and joints. In some versions, these data arein the form Denavit-Hartenberg parameters.

There are constructions of this invention in which a closed formsolution to the inverse kinematics is not known. This is often the casewith overactuated parallel mechanisms such as the mechanism described inthis application. In such situations, the inverse kinematics are solvedusing numerical methods such as the iterative Newton Raphson method. Theinverse kinematics model calculates the joint angles for both the activeand passive joints of the manipulator. The active joints are the jointsthe angles of which are driven by joint actuators. The passive jointsare the joints the angles of which are set as a result of thepositioning of the active joints. The passive joints are: the jointsbetween the upper links 74 and the driven links 80; the joints betweenthe four bar links 78 and the driven links 80; and the joints betweenthe driven links 80 and coupler 88.

Each desired joint angle for an active joint is applied to theassociated joint motor controller 126. The joint motor controller 126regulates the positioning of the joint. These joint angles applied tocontrollers 126 are referred to as commanded joint angles.

While not illustrated, it should be understood that some manipulatorsinclude modules that perform load balancing and/or arm compensation.This is true of manipulators that include parallel arms. These modulesare almost always provided if the manipulator includes overactuatedparallel arms. The load balancing is performed to ensure that the armsshare the load associated with advancing the instrument to the commandedposes. This load balancing is performed to minimize the extent to whicheach arm resists the movement of the other arm. Load balancing is alsoperformed to redistribute torque among the actuators. The torque isredistributed to minimize the instances in which any individual actuatoris required to apply a significant percentage of the total torque outputby the manipulator.

Arm compensation is performed because one arm is typically positioned toregulate the positioning of the other arm. For example, often at leastsome of the commanded joint angles of the lower arm 68 are often finelyadjusted to ensure precise positioning of the passive joint anglesassociated with the upper arm 70. The design of the load balancing andarm compensation modules is specific to the nature of the links integralwith the manipulator. This may be practiced with link assembliesdifferent than the described link assemblies.

The desired joint angles generated by the inverse kinematic module areapplied to a command dynamics module 544, also a motion control module.Command dynamics module differentiates the sequence of joint angles foreach joint. These differentiations are performed to, for each joint,generate data indicating its angular velocity and acceleration. Commanddynamics module also has a data describing the mass and inertiaproperties of each of the links.

Based on the above data, command dynamics module 544 performs an inversedynamics calculation for the motion of the links and joints. Thisinverse dynamics calculation produces, for each active joint, the torquethat should be applied to the joint to cause motion of the joint to thecommanded joint angle. This torque is referred to as the feed forwardtorque. In some versions, this torque is calculated based on theiterative Newton-Euler method. Alternatively, these torques can becalculated using the Lagrangian method.

While not shown in FIG. 13D, the signals representative of the forcesand torques detected by sensor 108 are sometimes applied to commanddynamics module 544. By employing these signals as additional inputvariables in the dynamics calculation, module 544 produces more accuratecalculations of the feed forward torque.

There are periods in which the manipulator 50 holds the instrument 160in a static pose. During these periods, the velocities and accelerationsof the joints fall to zero. Even during these time periods, commanddynamic module 544 outputs data indicating that the joint motors shouldstill produce non-zero torques. This is because the joint motors need tooutput at least some torque to prevent the arm links from slipping fromtheir static positions. This is because, even when the arm links are notexposed to direct mechanical forces, the arms are still subjected to theforce of gravity.

Each joint motor controller 126 receives three inputs. One input is thecommanded joint angle for the associated joint from the inversekinematics module. The second input is the feed forward torque for thejoint from the commanded dynamics module 544. The third input is theinput signal from the rotary encoder 112, 114 or 116 associated with thejoint. Each motor controller 126 also stores as a constant, the gearratio of the reduction gears 105 of the actuator 92, 94 or 96 with whichthe controller is associated. Based on these rotor angle data and thegear ratio data, the controller 126 generates data that represents theactual joint angle of the joint. This is known as the measured jointangle.

Based on the above inputs, the joint motor controller 126 determines theenergization signals that should be applied to the associated motor 101that cause the motor to drive the joint towards the commanded jointangle. It should be understood that the measured joint angle is used asthe representation of the actual joint angle. The feed forward torquefrom the command dynamics module is the feed forward torque signal addedto the input of the current control loop of the controller 126. Prior toadding this indication of feed forward torque to the current controlloop, controller 124 adjusts the torque from joint torque to motortorque based on the gear ratio. The torque is then adjusted from motortorque to motor current based on a stored torque constant of the motor.

As a consequence of the application of the energization signals appliedto the motors 101, the active joints are driven towards their commandedjoint angles. The resultant displacement of the shoulders and linksresults in the passive joints being driven towards their desired jointangles.

The measured joint angles of the six active joints generated by thejoint motor controllers 126 are forwarded to a forward kinematics module562. Also applied to the forward kinematics module 562 are the signalsfrom encoders 117 and 118. These signals are the measured joint anglesfor the passive joints integral with these encoders. Based on themeasured joint angles and preloaded data, the forward kinematics module562 determines a representation of the actual pose of the end effector110, coordinate system EFCT, relative to coordinate system MNPL. Thepreloaded data are data that define the geometry of the links andjoints. In some versions, these data are in the form Denavit-Hartenbergparameters.

Forward kinematics module 562 also calculates joint angles for thepassive joints to which encoders are not attached. These calculatedjoint angles function as representations of the actual joint angles forthe passive joints to which encoders are not attached. The forwardkinematics module 562 calculates these joint angles as part of theprocess of determining the actual pose of the end effector 110.

Based on the measured pose of the end effector, forward kinematicsmodule 562 produces data describing the measured pose of coordinatesystem CMVB and coordinate system EAPP both relative to coordinatesystem MNPL. This is because coordinate systems EFCT, CMVB and EAPP havefixed poses relative to each other.

The measured pose of coordinate system CMVB is applied to a Jacobiancalculator 564. Jacobian calculator 564, based on this measured pose,calculates Jacobian matrices relating motion within individualcoordinate spaces to motion of the origin of coordinate system CMVBexpressed in coordinate system CMVB. One such coordinate space is jointspace. Joint space is a vector consisting of all the joint angles of themanipulator. One of the calculated matrices is the Jacobian matrixbetween joint space and coordinate system CMVB, Jacobian J_(JNT). Asecond coordinate space is interference space. Interference space is avector that includes minimum distances between the below-discussedpotentially colliding pairs of links. In some cases these minimumdistances are distances along the common normals between the potentiallycolliding pairs of links. A second calculated matrix is the Jacobianmatrix between interference space and coordinate system CMVB, JacobianJ_(INF). Coordinate system EAPP is a third coordinate space. Calculator564 calculates the Jacobian matrix between the origin of coordinatesystem EAPP, expressed in coordinate system MNPL, to the origin ofcoordinate system CMVB, Jacobian J_(WSB).

Often calculator 564 initially calculates the inverse Jacobian of thedesired Jacobian using numerical methods. Once the inverse Jacobian iscalculated, calculator 564 determines the desired Jacobian by computingan inverse of the inverse Jacobian. In the case of a non-square Jacobianmatrix, the pseudoinverse must be used to compute this inverse.

The measured joint angles from encoders 112-118 and the calculated jointangles from forward kinematics module 562 are applied to a joint limitcomparator 582. Joint limit comparator 582 and the associated modulesgenerate signals that prevent each joint, active and passive, frommoving beyond a specific range of motion. A minimum and maximum jointlimit angle is defined for each joint. For proper operation of themanipulator, each joint angle should be between the associated jointlimit angles. Joint limit comparator 582 employs the measured orcalculated joint angle for each joint as the representation of theactual joint angle for the joint.

Associated with each joint limit angle is a joint boundary angle. Thejoint boundary angle is an angle within the range of motion of the jointthat is relatively close to the joint limit angle. For example, if theminimum joint limit angle associated with a joint is 10° the minimumboundary angle may be between 12 and 20°. If the maximum joint angle ofa joint is 115°, the maximum boundary angle may be between 105° and113°. Joint limit comparator 582 determines the differences between therepresentation of actual joint angle to the minimum and maximum boundaryjoint angles, step 591 of FIG. 24. This difference is known as aboundary exceeded angle, angle ANGLE_(B_E).

If the representation of actual joint angle is greater than the minimumboundary joint angle and less than the maximum joint boundary angle, thejoint is considered acceptably spaced away from the joint limit anglesfor the joint. There is no need to apply forces and torques to thevirtual rigid body that would prevent movement of the joint towards theclosest joint limit. Accordingly, in a step 591 if the above conditionstests true, joint limit comparator outputs a boundary exceeded angle of0° (step not shown). If the above condition tests false, joint limitcomparator 582 outputs a boundary exceeded angle that is the signeddifference of the representation of actual joint angle and the crossedboundary angle (step not shown). Typically, the sign is negative if theminimum joint boundary angle is crossed and positive if the maximumjoint boundary angle is crossed.

Step 592 represents the evaluation of the boundary exceeded angle. Ifthis angle is equal to zero for a particular joint angle, manipulatorcontroller 124 interprets this information as indicating thatmanipulator 50 can continue to freely move the joint towards the closestboundary joint angle. In FIG. 24 this is represented by, step 594, themotion control software's not outputting a joint limit torque.

If the boundary exceeded angle is non-zero, the angle is applied to ajoint limit torque generator 584, step not shown. Generator 584, basedon the input series of boundary exceeded angles, computes a timederivative of these angles. This time derivative is angular velocityV_(B_E). Joint limit torque generator 584 outputs a torque that would beapplied to the joint to prevent the manipulator from being moved in sucha way that joint will move further beyond the boundary angle towards theadjacent joint limit angle, step 596. This torque, torque T_(J_L), isdetermined according to the following formula:

T _(J_L) =f(ANGLE_(B_E))+f(V _(B_E))   (13)

In some cases:

f(ANGLE_(B_E))=K _(B_E)ANGLE_(B-E)   (13A)

f(V _(B_E))=D _(B_E) V _(B_E)   (13B)

Coefficient K_(B_E) is a spring coefficient. This coefficient may bevariable. This is because as the joint angle approaches the adjacentjoint limit angle there would be a need to appreciably increase thetorque that limits joint movement towards this angle. Consequently,there is often greater than first order relationship between themagnitude of this torque and the absolute difference between the crossedboundary angle and the representation of actual joint angle.

Coefficient D_(B_E) is a damping coefficient. The damping coefficientmay be variable. In some versions, this coefficient is a function of theboundary exceed angle ANGLE_(B-E) and/or velocity V_(B_E). Varyingcoefficient D_(B_E) may be desirable to enhance the stability of themovement of the instrument.

In practice, joint limit torque generator 584 does not actually executeEquation (13) to determine the joint limit torque. Instead, thegenerator 584 maintains look up tables of limiting torques (tables notillustrated). The inputs to determine the appropriate limiting torquesare representations of boundary exceeded angle ANGLE_(B-E) and angularvelocity V_(B_E). If the boundary exceeded angle is 0°, torque T_(J_L)is inherently a zero torque.

Joint limit torque generator 584 applies the plurality of torquesT_(J_L), one for each joint, to CMVB force converter 586, step notshown. A second input into force converter 586 is the previouslygenerated Jacobian J_(JNT) from Jacobian calculator 564. The forceconverter 584 places the individual torques T_(J_L) into a columnvector, {right arrow over (T)}_(J_L). Force converter converts thesetorques {right arrow over (T)}_(J_L) into the equivalent forces andtorques, force F_(J_L), that should be applied to the virtual rigid bodyat the origin of coordinate system CMVB, step 597. This conversion isperformed according to the following formula:

F _(J_L) =J _(JNT) ^(−T) {right arrow over (T)} _(J_L)   (14)

Force F_(J_L) is expressed in coordinate system CMVB. Force F_(J_L) isone of the inputs applied to force summer 379, (step not shown).

Another software module to which the measured and calculated jointangles are applied is the interference limit comparator 622. Comparator622 employs these angles as representations of the actual joint angles.In brief, the interference limit comparator 622 and associated modulesoutputs data describing forces that should be applied to the virtualrigid body if the movement of the arms could potentially result in linkcollisions. Here a “link” is more than just the links 72, 74, 76 and 80,that form each arm 68 and 70. A “link,” for the purpose of theprocessing performed by comparator 622, is any structural member, movingor rigid, that, as a result of the movement of one of the joints couldcollide with another component of the manipulator. For example, if themanipulator 50 is constructed so that one of the arm links couldpotentially collide with an outer surface of the cart 52, comparator 622would consider the cart surface to be a link. The shells in which theactuators are disposed if they could potentially collide with a link,are also considered to be links.

One reason to prevent these collisions is to prevent the movement of thelinks relative to each other that could result in pinch points formingbetween the links. Preventing these collisions also avoids the damagecaused by such collisions.

It should be understood that each link of the manipulator may notpotentially be capable of a collision with every other link of themanipulator. For example, the four bar link 78 and driven link 80 ofeach arm 68 and 70 cannot, due to the inherent construction of themanipulator 50, collide with each other. Nevertheless, the driven link80 of arm 68 can collide with the driven link 80 of arm 70. Most pairsof potentially colliding links consists of a link integral with arm 68and a link integral with the other arm, arm 70.

Based on the representations of the actual joint angles, interferencelimit comparator 622 determines a minimum distance between each pair ofpotentially colliding links, step 632 in FIG. 25. In some embodiments,this minimum distance is the distance along the common normal betweenthe links. To make this determination, comparator 622, using data andprocesses similar to that employed by forward kinematics module 562,determines the pose of each joint. Based on the pose data, module 622models each link as one or more line segments between each joint. Basedon the line segment models, module 622 determines the common normaldistance, the minimum distance, between each pair of potentiallycolliding links.

In step 634, the interference limit comparator 622 calculates adifference between the minimum distance for each pair of potentiallycolliding links and a boundary distance for the pair of links. Thisboundary distance is the distance below which movement of the linkstowards each other is undesirable. It should be appreciated that thismovement includes movement in which only one link moves towards theother link. This boundary distance is greater than what could beconsidered a collision avoided distance. Here, the collision avoideddistance is a distance which is a minimal clearance distance between thelinks. The collision avoided distance is a distance for the pair ofpotentially colliding pair of links that is greater than the smallestdistance between the links that would be considered to form a pinchpoint between the links.

The boundary distance is determined for each pair of potentiallycolliding links is typically determined prior to the start of theprocedure. The boundary distance can be determined by modeling each linkincluding a longitudinal axis that is surrounded by a three dimensionsvolume. This volume may have a cylindrical or capsule like shape.Alternatively, the shape may be in the form of parallel pipette. Thisvolume may have a more complex shape. The outer surface of this volumeis typically located at least 3 cm beyond the actual outer surface ofthe modeled link. In some versions this volume has an outer diameter ofat least 5 cm or at least 10 cm beyond the actual surface of the link.If the volume is capsule-like or cylindrical, the boundary distance foreach pair of potentially colliding links comprises the sum of the radiifor each of link encasing capsules or cylinders.

The difference between the minimum distance and a boundary distance fora pair of potentially colliding links is the interference boundaryexceeded distance, distance DIST_(I_B_E).

If the minimum distance for a pair of links is greater than theassociated boundary distance, the manipulator 50 is considered in acondition in which the links are spaced sufficiently far apart from eachother that movement of the links towards each other would not result information of a pinch point or collision. For each pair of potentiallycolliding links in this condition, comparator returns an interferenceboundary exceeded distance of zero (step not shown).

If the minimum distance for a pair of links is less than the associatedboundary distance, interference limit comparator 622 outputs theabsolute value of the difference as distance DIST_(I_B_E), step notshown.

In a step 635, for the pairs of potentially colliding links, theinterference boundary exceeded distance, distance DIST_(I_B_E) isevaluated. If this distance is zero, the motion control processes do notoutput a force that would prevent the links from continuing to movetogether, step 636.

If the interference boundary exceeded distance, distance DIST_(I_B_E) isnon-zero, the distance is applied to an interference limit forcegenerator 624, step not shown. Generator 624, based on the input seriesof interference boundary exceeded distances, computes a time derivativeof these distances, step 637. This time derivative is a linear velocityV_(I_B_E). Interference limit force generator 624 outputs a force thatwould be applied along the line of minimum distance between the links toprevent the manipulator from being moved in such a way that will resultin the further closing of the distance between the potentially collidinglinks, step 638. For some constructions, this line is along the commonnormal between the links. This force, force F_(I_B_E), is determinedaccording to the following formula:

F _(I_B_E) =f(DIST_(I_B_E))+f(V _(I_B_E))   (15)

In some cases:

f(DIST_(I_B_E))=K _(C_A)DIST_(I_B_E)   (15A)

f(V _(I_B_E))−D _(C_A)V_(I_B_E)   (15B)

Coefficient K_(C_A) is a spring coefficient. This coefficient may bevariable. This is because as the minimum distance approaches thecollision stopped distance, there is a need to appreciably increase theforce that limits the movement of the links towards each other.Consequently, there is often greater than first order relationshipbetween the magnitude of this force and the interference boundaryexceeded distance.

Coefficient D_(C_A) is a damping coefficient. The damping coefficientmay be variable. In some versions, this coefficient is a function ofdistance DIST_(I_B_E) and/or velocity V_(I_B_E). Varying coefficientD_(C_A) may be desirable to enhance the stability of the movement of theinstrument.

In practice, interference limit force generator 624 does not actuallyexecute Equation (15) to determine the collision preventing force.Instead, the generator 624 maintains look up tables of collisionpreventing forces (tables not illustrated). The inputs to determinecollision preventing forces are representations of the interferenceboundary exceeded distance DIST_(I_B_E) and velocity V_(I_B_E). If theinterference boundary exceeded distance is zero, force F_(I_B_E) isinherently a zero force. Interference limit force generator 624generates a plurality of forces F_(I_B_E) one for each potentiallycolliding pair of links.

The plural forces F_(I_B_E) generated by generator 624 are applied to aCMVB force converter 626, step not shown. A second input into forceconverter 626 is the previously generated Jacobian J_(INF) from Jacobiancalculator 564. Force converter 626 places the individual forcesF_(I_B_E) into a column vector, {right arrow over (F)}_(I_B_E). Forceconverter converts forces {right arrow over (F)}_(I_B_E) into theequivalent forces and torques, force F_(INF), which should be applied tothe origin of coordinate system CMVB of the virtual rigid body, step639. This conversion is performed according to the following formula:

F _(INF) =J _(INF) ^(−T) {right arrow over (F)} _(I_B_E)   (16)

Force F_(INF) is expressed in coordinate system CMVB. Force F_(INF) isone of the inputs applied to force summer 379, step not shown.

Another module that is part of the motion control processes performed bythe manipulator controller 124 is a workspace limit comparator 652.Workspace limit comparator 652 determines if the energy applicator 184is reaching the boundary of a defined workspace. The limit of thisworkspace is spaced from the origin of the coordinate system MNPL and isdefined by reference to this coordinate system. The workspace is withinthe volume in which energy applicator 184 can move if shoulders 67 and69 and links 72 and 74 are allowed to move to the full extensions oftheir ranges of motion. This workspace, sometimes referred to as the“dexterous workspace,” is less than the volume of the space within thefull range of motion of the manipulator 50. This is because, as theenergy applicator 184 moves towards the limit of its inherent boundary,the ability to adjust the orientation of the instrument and energyapplicator 184 is reduced. By way of example, at an extreme, in order toposition the energy applicator 184 at the location where it is spaced amaximum distance from the origin of manipulator reference frame, thearms can only be in one position, a fully extended position. Since thearms can only be in a single position, by extension the instrument andenergy applicator 184 can only be aligned in one orientation. To ensurethat the practitioner has at least some ability to so reorient theenergy applicator 184, the manipulator 50 does not allow the energyapplicator 184 to advance outside of this workspace.

It should be appreciated that, owing to the physical construction of themanipulator 50, this workspace is typically not in the form of a simplegeometric structure such as a sphere or a cube. The workspace is oftendefined by a set of contiguous volumes each of which has a differentshape and or size. Thus, while the distance to the ceiling of theworkspace above and distal to the origin of the manipulator may be adistance of 1.5 m from the origin of the manipulator coordinate system,the distance to the base of the workspace below the origin of themanipulator coordinate system may be 0.2 m. In these and other versions,the proximal end of the workspace may be located distal to origin of thecoordinate system MNPL. Thus in some versions the arms may be able tomove the instrument within a workspace that may extend from a location0.5 m distal from the origin of the coordinate system MNPL to a location2.0 m distal from the same point.

The virtual surfaces around the manipulator defining the workspace arecollectively referred to as the workspace limit. Within the workspacelimit there is a workspace boundary. The workspace boundary is locatedtypically 1 to 5 cm inwardly from the workspace limit. Like theworkspace limit, the workspace boundary is defined in coordinate systemMNPL.

The workspace limit comparator 652 receives as an input a representationof the actual position of the energy applicator 184, the origin ofcoordinate system EAPP. In one version, this representation of theactual position of the origin of coordinate system EAPP on the positionis calculated by the forward kinematics module 562. Based on therepresentation of energy applicator 184 position, comparator 652determines the location of the energy applicator 184, the origin ofcoordinate system EAPP, relative to the workspace boundary, step 639 a.Step 640 represents the evaluation that occurs after this initialdetermination is made. If the energy applicator 184 is within theworkspace boundary, the motion control processes do not apply forces toensure the energy applicator 184 remains within the workspace limit.This is represented by the branching to step 661.

If the evaluation of step 661 tests false, comparator 652 calculates apositive workspace boundary exceeded distance, distance DIST_(W_B_E),step 663. This distance is the distance along a line from the origin ofcoordinate system EAPP back to a point on the workspace boundary suchthat the line is normal to the surface of the boundary. This distance istypically the shortest distance from the origin of coordinate systemEAPP back to the workspace boundary. As part of step 663, a unitdirection vector, vector D_(W_B_E), along this line from the origin ofcoordinate system EAPP towards the workspace boundary is determined.Vector D_(W_B_E) is expressed in coordinate system MNPL.

The workspace boundary exceeded distance is applied to a workspace limitforce generator 654, step not shown. Generator 654, based on the inputseries of workspace boundary exceeded distances, computes a timederivative of these distances, step 664. This time derivative is alinear velocity V_(W_B_E).

In a step 665 workspace boundary exceeded force generator 654 outputs aforce that would be applied along the normal line from the origin ofcoordinate system EAPP back to the workspace that would prevent theenergy applicator 184 from being moved further away from the workspaceboundary towards the workspace limit. The magnitude of this force, forceF_(W_B_E), is determined according to the following formula:

F _(W_B_E) =f(DIST_(W_B_E))+f(V _(W_B_E))   (17)

In some cases:

f(DIST_(W_B_E))=K _(WS E)DIST_(W_B_E)   (17A)

f(V _(W B E))=D _(WS_E)V_(W B E)   (17B)

Coefficient K_(WS E) is a spring coefficient. This coefficient may bevariable. This is because as the energy applicator 184 moves outwardlyfrom the workspace boundary towards the workspace limit, there is a needto appreciably increase the force that prevents the continued movementof the energy applicator 184 towards the workspace limit. Consequently,there is often greater than first order relationship between themagnitude of this force and the workspace boundary exceeded distance.

Coefficient D_(WS_E) is a damping coefficient. The damping coefficientmay be variable. In some versions, this coefficient is a function ofdistance DIST_(W_B_E) and/or velocity V_(W_B_E). Varying coefficientD_(WS_E) may be desirable to enhance the stability of the movement ofthe instrument.

In practice, workspace boundary force generator 654 does not actuallyexecute Equation (17) to determine the workspace boundary exceededforce. Instead, the generator 654 maintains look up tables of theseforces (tables not illustrated). The inputs to determine collisionpreventing forces are representations of the workspace boundary exceededdistance DIST_(I B E) and velocity V_(I_B_E). If the workspace boundaryexceeded distance is zero, force F_(W_B_E) is inherently a zero force.

Scalar force F_(W_B_E) is converted into a vector force, {right arrowover (F)}_(W_B_E) according to the following equation:

{right arrow over (F)}_(W_B_E)=F_(W_B_E)D_(W_B_E)   (17C)

Force {right arrow over (F)}_(W_B_E) is expressed in coordinate systemMNPL.

Force {right arrow over (F)}_(W_B_E) is applied to a CMVB forceconverter 655, step not shown. A second input into force converter 655is Jacobian J_(WSB) from Jacobian calculator 564. The force converterconverts force {right arrow over (F)}_(W_B_E) into the equivalent forcesand torques, force F_(WSB), that should be applied to the origin ofcoordinate system CMVB of the virtual rigid body, step 666. Thisconversion is performed according to the following formula:

F _(WSB) =J _(WSB) ^(−T) {right arrow over (F)} _(W_B_E)   (18)

Force F_(WSB) is expressed in coordinate system CMVB. Force F_(WSB) isone of the forces applied to force summer 379, step not shown.

The behavior controller also includes modules that provide data aboutexternal forces and torques that are applied to the manipulator 50, theinstrument 160 and energy applicator 184. These external forces andtorques include the resistance of the tissue to instrument advancementand practitioner applied forces and torques.

One method of determining external forces and torques is to determinethe magnitude of backdrive torques output by the joint motors 101.Backdrive torques are output by joint motors 101 in response to externalforces and torques placed on the manipulator, instrument and energyapplicator 184. The backdrive torques are the torques output by thejoint motors 101 beyond the torques needed to overcome inertia and theforce of gravity.

Backdrive torques function as representations of external forces andtorques because each joint motor 101 and associated joint motorcontroller 126 form a position control loop. The joint motor controller126 regulates the joint angle of the joint with which the controller isassociated. Each controller 126 continually adjusts the torque theassociated motor 101 outputs to, as closely as possible, ensure that themotor drives the associated joint to the commanded joint angle. When theinstrument is subjected to external forces and torques, these forces andtorques momentarily disrupt the advancement of the instrument to thecommanded pose. This, in turn, momentarily disrupts the advancement ofone or more of the joints to their commanded joint angles. The controlloops typically operate at a much higher bandwidth than the behavior andmotion control processes. The control loops therefore, essentiallysimultaneously with the application of the external forces and torques,adjust the torques output by the joint motors 101 to compensate forthese forces and torques. Thus, the torques output by the joint motorsrepresent a sum of torques. These torques are the torques needed toovercome inertia and gravity and the torques needed to overcome theexternal forces and torques, the back drive torques.

To calculate the backdrive torques, the manipulator controller 124determines the torques that joint motors 101 should output if externalforces and torques are not present. These torques are determined by anexpected dynamics module, module 690. The inputs into expected dynamicsmodule 690 are the measured joint angles from encoders 112, 114, 116,117 and 118 and the calculated joint angles from forward kinematicsmodule 562. Using the methods employed by command dynamics module 544,expected dynamics module 690 calculates, for the active joints,estimates of torques consistent with the observed movement of thejoints. These torques are estimates of the torques that would be appliedin the absence of external forces and torques applied to themanipulator, the instrument or the energy applicator 184. These torquesare referred to as the expected torques.

The second set of variables upon which the backdrive torques aredetermined is the actual torques that the joint motors apply to the arms68 and 70 to advance the instrument 160 towards the commanded pose.Manipulator 50 employs two methods for obtaining representations of theactual torques. One method is the measuring of the torques output by thejoint motors 101, more accurately, the reduction gears 105. In practice,signals representative of the currents applied to the joint motors 101from the joint motor controllers 126 are often employed as signalsrepresentative of the joint motor/reduction gear torques. This isbecause there is a linear relationship between the current applied to amotor 101 and the torque output by the motor.

The second method of determining representations of actual torques is tomonitor the torques the joint motors 101 output as measured by torquesensors 89.

A backdrive torque summer 691 receives as inputs the currents applied tothe joint motors 101 and the signals output by torque sensors 89. Torquesummer 691 blends these inputs to produce a single stream of output datarepresentative of the actual joint torque. In some versions, backdrivetorque summer 691 produces a weighted average of these tworepresentations of actual torques. These average torque values reflectthe strengths in accuracies in torque measurements that are inherent butdifferent in the two separate methods of determining actual jointtorque. Torque sensors 89 may produce signals that are incrementallymore sensitive to changes in torque output. The torque measurementsbased on the applied current in some cases are more representative ofthe output torque over a broader range of torques.

The representation of actual joint torques produced by torque summer 691is applied to a backdrive torque calculator 693. The second input intocalculator 693 is the set of expected joint torques. Calculator 693computes the difference between these two sets of torques. Thisdifference is an estimate of the backdrive torques, torque T_(BDR),outputted to compensate for the external forces and torques. TorqueT_(BDR) is a column vector that includes estimates of the backdrivetorques applied to the active joints. The components of torque T_(BDR)for the passive joints are set to zero.

If external forces and torques are not present, the representations ofactual joint torques should be equal to the expected joint torques. Ifthis condition exists, the output from the backdrive torque calculator693, torque T_(BDR), is essentially the zero vector.

Torque T_(BDR) is applied to a CMVB force converter 694. A second inputinto force converter 694 is Jacobian J_(JNT) from the Jacobiancalculator 564. Force converter 694 converts torque T_(BDR) into theequivalent forces and torques, force F_(BDR), which should be applied tothe origin of coordinate system CMVB of the virtual rigid body. Thisconversion is performed according to the following formula:

F _(BDR) =J _(JNT) ^(−T) T _(BDR)   (19)

Force F_(BDR) is expressed in coordinate system CMVB. Force F_(BDR) isin the same direction as the direction of the external forces andtorques applied to the manipulator 50, the instrument 160 and energyapplicator 184.

Backdrive force F_(BDR) are applied to a deadband filter 695. Deadbandfilter 695 only passes through for subsequent processing backdriveforces with absolute values above certain defined threshold valuesstored in the filter 695. In some versions there is a threshold for eachcomponent of force F_(BDR). Alternatively, the thresholds are based onthe magnitude of the force component and the magnitude of the torquecomponent of force F_(BDR).

The outputs of filter 695 are based on the differences between thecomponents of backdrive forces F_(BDR) and the threshold values.Components of force F_(BDR) with absolute values below the thresholdvalues are set to zero. This filtering offsets the inherent limitationsin modeling the structure of the manipulator 50. These limitations aredue in part to the difficulty in accounting for extra loads, such as theexistence of cables that may be attached to the manipulator arms 68 and70. These limitations also compensate for the difficulty in modelingfriction and the dynamics of the manipulator.

Force/torque sensor 108 provides manipulator controller 124 a secondindicia of the external forces and torques applied to the manipulator50, the instrument 160 and energy applicator 184. The output signalsfrom sensor 108 are applied to a gravity compensator 689, depicted inFIG. 13E. Gravity compensator 689 outputs signals representative of theapplied forces and torques from which the effect of gravity on thesensor 108, the instrument 160 and energy applicator 184 have beensubstantially eliminated.

These compensations are typically subtracted from the signalsrepresentative of the sensed forces and torques. The compensation isoften performed by reference to values stored in look up tables integralwith the compensator 689. These values may be positive or negative. Thespecific compensation value subtracted from any individual signalrepresentative of measured force and torque is generally a function ofthe orientation of the instrument. A second input into compensator 689is therefore data representative of the actual orientation of theinstrument. The orientation component of the measured pose from theforward kinematics module 562 can function as this representation ofactual instrument orientation.

The data for compensation value tables maintained by compensator 689 canbe defined each time the manipulator 50 is initially activated. Toobtain these data, the arms 68 and 70, position the instrument 160 andattached energy applicator 184 in a number of predefined orientations.Compensator 689, based on the output from sensor 108 when the instrumentis in each of these orientations, generates the data for the look uptables. Alternatively, the data for the tables are calculated usingpredefined data regarding the sensor 108 and data defining the massproperties of the components attached to the distally directed portionof the sensor. These data may include data stored in a memory integralto the instrument.

As a result of this compensation the practitioner, when holding theinstrument, is neither exposed to the actual force of gravity workingagainst the instrument nor an emulated version of this force. Thisreduces the physical fatigue to which the practitioner may otherwise beexposed when holding the instrument for extended periods.

Compensator 689 also compensates for inherent errors in the signalsoutput by the sensor. These errors include offsets due to temperaturedrift. Compensator 689 compensates for these errors by adding orsubtracting offset values that are specific for the sensor. These offsetvalues may also be a function of sensor orientation. These offset valuesare often stored in look up tables integral with the compensator 689.These look up tables are separate from the tables in which thegravity-compensating offset values are stored.

The gravity compensated signals from sensor 108 are applied to a CMVBforce converter 696. Converter 696 converts these forces and torquesfrom a coordinate system specific to sensor 108 into the equivalentforces and torques applied to coordinate system CMVB. The Jacobianemployed by CMVB force converter 696 is a Jacobian with constantcoefficients that is defined at the start of the procedure in which themanipulator is employed. This Jacobian is based on the relative posebetween the coordinate system of sensor 108 and coordinate system CMVB.Converter 696 thus outputs representations of the forces and torquesmeasured by sensor 108 that are expressed in coordinate system CMVB.

The output of converter 696 is applied to an attenuator 697 internal tomanipulator controller 124. Attenuator 697 selectively attenuates thesignals from zero values to their unattenuated levels. In some versionsof this invention, the ramping is performed using finite impulseresponse digital filters. The extent to which attenuator 697 attenuatesthese signals is a function of the depressed/released state of switch176. When switch 176 is depressed, attenuator 697 ramps the signals downto their fully attenuated, zero values. Upon the release of switch 176,the signals are ramped to their unattenuated levels. The rampingdown/ramping up is typically performed over a period of between 10 to500 milliseconds. The actual time periods of these two ramping processesneed not be equal. In some versions of this invention, the ramping isperformed using finite impulse response digital filters. The output fromattenuator 697 are force F_(FTS). Force F_(FTS) is expressed incoordinate system CMVB.

This signal ramping reduces the extent to which large impulse forces areapplied to the instrument when switch 176 is initially depressed orreleased.

Force F_(BDR) from CMVB force converter 694 and force F_(FTS) areapplied to an external forces summer 698. Summer 698 produces a weightedsum of these two representations of the external forces and torques,force F_(EXT). Force F_(EXT) includes a force vector component, {rightarrow over (F)}_(EXT) and a torque vector component, {right arrow over(T)}_(EXT). External forces force summer 698 outputs the force vectorcomponent according to the following equation:

{right arrow over (F)} _(EXT) =A _(BDR) {right arrow over (F)} _(BDR) +A_(FTS) {right arrow over (T)} _(FTS)   (20A)

Here, {right arrow over (F)}_(BDR) is the force vector component ofF_(BDR). Vector {right arrow over (F)}_(FTS) is the force vectorcomponent of F_(FTS). The torque vector component of external forcesF_(EXT) is calculated using a similar equation:

{right arrow over (T)} _(EXT) +B _(BDR) {right arrow over (T)} _(BDR) +B_(FTS) {right arrow over (T)} _(FTS)   (20B)

Here, {right arrow over (T)}_(BDR) is the torque vector component ofF_(BDR). Vector {right arrow over (F)}_(FTS) is the torque vectorcomponent of F_(FTS).

In Equations (20A) and (20B) A_(BDR), A_(FTS), B_(BDR) and B_(FTS) arethe weighting factor coefficients for the individual force and torquevariables. These weighting factors may not be constant for the fullrange of external forces and torques applied to the manipulator, theinstrument or energy applicator 184. These weighting factors may bevaried to compensate for characteristics associated with the sources ofthe representations of the external forces and torques. For example,when relatively low external forces and torques are applied to theinstrument, the sensor 108 may provide the more accurate representationof these forces and torques. Accordingly, when the manipulator is inthis state, weighting factors A_(FTS) and B_(FTS) are relatively highand weighting factors A_(BDR) and B_(BDR) and are relatively low.

When the external forces and torques are relatively large, the outputsignals from the same sensor 108 may be saturated. For this constructionof manipulator 50, the backdrive torques are representative of theexternal forces and torques over a wider dynamic range. Accordingly,when the external forces and torques are relatively large, weightingfactors A_(BDR) and B_(BDR) are relatively high and weighting factorsA_(FTS) and B_(FTS) and are relatively low.

The weighting factors typically range from 0.0 to 1.0. As a result ofempirical testing, in some versions, the maximum values of weightingfactors A_(BDR) and B_(BDR) are set to values above unity. The factorsA_(xxx) and B_(xxx) for each pair typically add to unity. In someversions, this sum may be less than or greater than unity.

Force F_(EXT) is expressed in coordinate system CMVB. External forcessummer applies force F_(EXT) to force summer 379.

Damping forces and torques are also components of the forces F_(TTL) andtorques T_(TTL) output by force summer 380. Collectively, the dampingforces and torques are identified as force F_(DMP). Damping forceF_(DMP) is generated to provide a resistance to movement of theinstrument that emulates the natural motion of the instrument.

Damping force F_(DMP) is generated by damping force calculator 734 seenin FIG. 13B. A representation of the actual velocity of coordinatesystem CMVB functions as the input data from which calculator 734determines damping force F_(DMP). In the depicted version, the commandedvelocity output by the cut guide 390 is employed as the representationof this velocity.

There are a number of different means by which damping force calculator734 could generate forces in opposition to the advancement of theinstrument 160. Calculator 734 may use an algorithm to generate theseforces wherein the input variable is the velocity vector. This algorithmis typically in the form of:

F _(DMP) =f(V _(CMND))   (21)

In some cases:

f(V _(CMND))=D _(DMP) V _(CMND)   (21A)

Velocity V_(CMND) is the vector comprising the linear and rotationalcomponents of commanded velocity, expressed in coordinate system CMVB.Coefficient D_(DMP) is a matrix including the damping coefficients. Inmany constructions, this matrix is a diagonal matrix in which the linearand rotational coefficients are not equal. Often the linear coefficientsare identical and the rotational coefficients are identical. Thecoefficients of this algorithm may change as a function of the specificrange of velocities of the velocity supplied to the calculator. Thesecoefficients are typically stored in a look-up table associated withcalculator 734.

Alternatively, damping calculator 734, based on the velocity vector,refers to a look-up table in which a number of different values fordamping force F_(DMP) are stored. Based on the specific velocitysupplied to the calculator 734, the calculator retrieves data thatcollectively describe an appropriate force F_(DMP).

Often manipulator 50 is provided with plural sets of dampingcoefficients D_(DMP) or multiple sets of look up tables in which valuesfor force F_(DMP) are stored. Depending on the mode of operation of themanipulator 50, a particular set of coefficients or look up table isused as the reference data upon which force F_(DMP) is generated. Thisis because it is often desirable to set the damping force as a functionof the mode of operation of the manipulator. For example, in comparisonto when being operated in the manual mode, when the manipulator isoperated in the semi-autonomous mode it is often desirable to provide ahigher magnitude damping force. This increase in damping force has beenfound to minimize the reaction of the instrument to the forces (theresistance) to which the instrument and energy applicator 184 areexposed. This can improve the precision with which the manipulator 50advances the energy applicator 184 along the path segment.

Another means by which damping force calculator 734 could generateforces in opposition to the advancement of the instrument 160 is byusing an algorithm to generate forces due to “sliding friction.” Themagnitude of sliding friction is a constant value and is independent ofsurface area, displacement or position, and velocity. This type ofdamping is of the first order and is referred to as Coulomb damping.Coulomb damping and the above-described viscous damping may be adjustedindependently to maintain the stability of the instrument and to controlhow the instrument feels to the practitioner.

Also, it is often desirable to output a decreased magnitude dampingforce F_(DMP) when the practitioner depresses switch 176 to manually setthe position of the instrument 176. As soon as switch 176 is released,it is typically desirable to employ coefficients D_(AMP) or referencelook up tables that result in the outputting of a damping force F_(DMP)of increased magnitude. This higher magnitude force F_(DMP) is output torapidly stop the movement of the instrument.

Damping force calculator 734 outputs damping force F_(DMP) as a force tobe applied to the center of mass of the virtual rigid body, expressed incoordinate system CMVB. Damping force F_(DMP) is applied to force summer379.

Force summer 379, the environmental force summer, receives the followinginputs: the joint limit force F_(J_L); the interference limit forceF_(INF); the workspace boundary force F_(WSB); the external forceF_(EXT); and the damping force F_(DMP). These forces are summedtogether. The output of force summer 379 is the environmental force,force F_(ENV).

Environmental force summer 379 may output force F_(ENV) as a weightedsum. Coefficients are applied to the individual inputs to perform thisweighting. The weighting may be performed to appropriately balance therelative contribution of each input force. This balancing is performedto increase the extent to which, when the manipulator 50 advances theinstrument in the manual mode, the impression the practitioner perceivesis the same as that which would be perceived if he/she was directlyapplying force to advance the instrument. The coefficients may change asa function of the transition of the manipulator between operating modes.During these transitions, the coefficients are typically ramped up ordown over a time interval following the transition. Typically thisinterval is between 10 and 100 milliseconds.

Environmental force F_(ENV) is applied to the energy applicator forcecalculator 358 of the tool path force calculator 278. Energy applicatorforce calculator 358 uses force F_(ENV) as the above described inputinto its solving of Equation (5). Environmental force F_(ENV) is alsoapplied to total force summer 380.

Total force summer 380 receives as inputs the environmental forceF_(ENV), the semi-autonomous instrument advancement force F_(INST) andthe force required to maintain the orientation of the instrument,F_(ORNT). Based on these three inputs, total force summer 380 producesthe above-discussed outputs: forces F_(TTL); and torques T_(TTL). ForcesF_(TTL) and torques T_(TTL) may be weighted sums of the inputs for thesame reasons environmental force F_(ENV) may be a weighted sum.

Another module internal to manipulator controller 124 is an instrumentmanager 702, seen in FIG. 27. Instrument manager 702 controls the on/offstate of instrument 160. Inputs into manager 702 include signalsindicating the depressed/released states of pendant trigger 194,instrument buttons 164 and 174 and instrument control switch 176. Forceoverrider 375 provides a signal if it is necessary to deactivate theinstrument power generating unit 163. Tool path generator 234selectively asserts a signal to the instrument manager 702 at the startof semi-autonomous advancement of the instrument. This signal isasserted if the instrument is within the below discussed target region.The cut guide 390 provides a signal to the instrument manager 702indicating that the boundaries have been defined. The localizationengine 270 provides data indicating that the engine is able to generatedata describing the relative pose of the instrument and the bone.Inferentially these latter data are data indicating that the signalstransmitted by the tracker 212 and 214 are being received by thelocalizer 216. Based on the above data, the instrument manager 702selectively asserts signals to activate and deactivate the instrumentpower generating unit 163. These signals are forwarded to the toolcontroller 132.

Instrument manager 702 asserts the signals that result in the turning onof the tool power generating unit 163 in response to a number ofconditions being meet. One of these conditions is that the cut guide 390has indicated that the boundaries have been defined. Another conditionthat should be met is that localization engine 270 is able to track therelative pose of the instrument to the bone.

Instrument manager 702 actuates the instrument 160 when the practitionertakes positive action to intentionally actuate the instrument. When themanipulator is operated in the manual mode, this action is the continueddepression of switch 176 in combination with the toggling of one ofbuttons 164 or 174. When the manipulator is operated in thesemi-autonomous mode, instrument manager 702 only sends the signals tothe tool controller 132 indicating that the power generating unit 163should be energized if the manager receives an indication that pendanttrigger 194 is depressed.

IV. Operation A. Manual Mode

Manipulator 50 is prepared for use by attaching the energy applicator184 to the instrument 160. Instrument 160 is, by way of couplingassembly 111, mounted to end effector 110. Using calibration techniques,the pose of coordinate system EAPP, the pose of coordinate system CMVB,the pose of coordinate system EFCT and the pose of coordinate systemTLTR relative to each other are determined. Data describing theserelative poses are supplied to the manipulator controller 124,specifically coordinate system transformer 272.

Upon initial actuation of the manipulator 50, the boundaries upon whichthe cut guide limits the advancement of the instrument have not yet beendefined. Instrument manager 702 therefore does not assert signals to thetool controller 132 that can result in the actuation of the instrumentpower generating unit 163.

Once the bone tracker 212 is fixed to the bone, the bone is registeredrelative to coordinate system BTRK. Surgical personnel, using navigationinterface 220 adjust and confirm the positioning of the boundariesrelative to the bone. Once this step is performed, boundary generator232 employs these data to calculate the pose of the coordinate systemassociated with the boundaries relative to coordinate system BTRK. Thisrelationship is fixed. These relationship data are applied to thecoordinate system transformer 272. Data defining the positions of theboundary-defining tiles are loaded into the cut guide 390.

Once the tile-defining data are loaded into cut guide 390, the cut guide390 asserts a signal to the instrument manager 702 indicating theboundaries have been defined. Receipt of this signal is recognized bythe instrument manager 702 that the practitioner can now actuate theinstrument 160.

Also as part of the initial configuration of the instrument, the toolcontroller 132 is set to output the energization signals needed to causethe instrument to, when actuated, output the energy designated by thepractitioner. For example, if the instrument 160 includes a motor, thetool controller 132 is set to cause the instrument motor to operate atthe practitioner desired motor speed. If the instrument 160 is anelectrosurgical tool, tool controller 132 is set to cause the instrumentto source the appropriate current and/or cause an appropriate voltage todevelop across two electrodes. If the instrument emits photonic energy,instrument controller 132 is set to cause the instrument 160 to outputphotonic energy of the appropriate wattage. These setting are performedby entry of commands through user interface 130.

Manipulator 50 is enabled for operation by depressing a button presentedon user interface 130 (button not illustrated). In response to thedepression of this button, manipulator controller reads the signals fromthe encoders 112, 114, 116, 117 and 118 as the measured joint angles.Based on these data, the forward kinematics module 562 determines aninitial set of calculated joint angles. Forward kinematic module 562also outputs an initial pose of coordinate system CMVB relative to theorigin of manipulator coordinate system MNPL.

Based on the measured joint angles, the calculated joint angles and theinitial pose of coordinate system CMVB initial comparisons are performedby comparators 582, 622 and 652. These comparisons are performed todetermine if in the initial state, the manipulator is violating any oneof the joint limits, the interference limits or workspace limits, (stepsnot shown). If any of these limits are violated, an error message isdisplayed on user interface 130. Further operation of the manipulator isblocked until the violation is resolved.

The forward kinematics-derived initial pose of coordinate system CMVB isalso employed as the initial commanded pose of this coordinate system.The commanded velocity is initially set to zero.

Integrator 386 therefore has as the first frame initial conditions datarepresentative of the actual pose of coordinate system CMVB and aninitial commanded velocity of zero. This commanded pose is initiallyforwarded to the inverse kinematics module 542.

As with any commanded pose data, the inverse kinematics module uses thiscommanded pose to determine the commanded joint angles that are appliedto the joint motor controllers 126. In this initial frame, the measuredjoint angles are essentially already at the commanded joint angles.

When the joint motor controllers 126 are initially activated, the brakesare holding the active joints static. After the joint motor controllers126 are activated, the brakes are released. In response to the releaseof the brakes, gravity starts to act on the links. As the active jointsstart to depart from the commanded joint angles, controllers 126 causethe motors 101 to output torques that counteract the force of gravity.Joint motor controllers 126 therefore cause torques to be output thatessentially holds the arms static. Once brakes 103 have been released,the manipulator 50 is able to position the instrument 160.

During periods in which switch 176 is not depressed, sensor signalattenuator 697 completely attenuates, blocks, the passing of the signalsfrom the force torque sensor 108 to the external force summer 698.Blocking these signals prevents unintended movement of the manipulatorthat could result from the drift of and random variations of the signalsfrom sensor 108. If these drifting and varying sensor signals areforwarded beyond attenuator 697, they would be interpreted as anindication that the practitioner has applied forces and/or torques tothe instrument. This would result in the other modules internal to themanipulator controller 124 generating commands that would cause theunintended movement of the manipulator.

Even if the practitioner does not attempt to move the instrument,manipulator controller 124 will reposition the instrument 160 if thebackdrive force F_(BDR) indicates that one of the arms 68 or 70 orattached components is subjected to an external force. This preventsdamage to structural components of the manipulator and instrument 160 ifeither of these devices is somehow inadvertently bumped. It should beappreciated that these unintended forces must be greater than theminimum forces passed by deadband filter 695.

Manipulator 50 is, by default, initialized in the manual mode. When themanipulator is in the manual mode, instrument 160 is notsemi-autonomously advanced. Tool path force calculator 278 does notoutput signals of forces and torques to total force summer 380 thatwould facilitate semi-autonomous advancement of the instrument.

For the practitioner to position the instrument, the practitionerdepresses switch 176. Simultaneously, the practitioner places forces andtorques on the instrument. These forces and torques are similar inmagnitude to those that would be placed on an instrument held in thehand to control instrument pose. In response to sensing the statetransition of switch 176, sensor signal attenuator 697 ramps up thesignals from sensor 108 to their unattenuated levels. This signalramping ensures that the joint motors 101, when initially applyingtorques to the arms, do not suddenly apply large amounts of torque tothe manipulator 50.

In response to the practitioner placing the forces and torques on theinstrument, sensor 108 outputs signals representative of these forcesand torques. These signals are passed through the sensor signalattenuator 697 to the external forces summer 698. The external forcessummer blends these signals as appropriate with the signalsrepresentative of external forces as represented by backdrive forceF_(BDR). External forces summer 698, in turn, outputs these signalsthrough environmental force summer 379 to total force summer 380. Thesepractitioner applied forces are consequently components of the forcesF_(TTL) and torque T_(TTL) output by total force summer 380.

Consequently, when integrator 386 generates pose and velocity data, itdoes so based, in part, on the representation of practitioner appliedforces and torques. Cut guide 390, based on the integrator-generatedpose and velocity, outputs the commanded pose and commanded velocity forcoordinate system CMVB. Based on the commanded pose, inverse kinematicsmodule 542 and command dynamics module 544 generate signals indicating,respectively, commanded joint angles and feed forward torques for theactive joints. Joint motor controllers 126, based on the commanded jointangles and feed forward torques, apply the necessary currents to jointmotors 101. These are the currents that result in the motors 101outputting torques that result in advancement of the active jointstowards their commanded joint angles. This results in motion of theinstrument that emulates the motion of the instrument 160 if the forcesand torques that the practitioner applied were applied to the center ofmass of an instrument held in the hand.

To actuate the instrument 160, either one of buttons 164 or 174 istoggled while switch 176 is depressed. When this condition exists,instrument manager 702 asserts a command signal to the tool controller132. This is the command signal instructing the controller 132 that itis to now actuate the instrument. Based upon receipt of this commandsignal, tool controller 132 applies the appropriate energization signalsto the instrument 160 to actuate the instrument. In the situation wherethe instrument 160 includes a motor and the energy applicator 184 is abur or other cutting accessory, the application of the energizationsignals result in the rotation of the energy applicator 184.

As the instrument 160 and energy applicator 184 are advanced, thelocalization engine 270 continually generates data indicating the posesof both the bone tracker 212 and tool tracker 214 relative to thelocalizer 216. These data are forwarded to the coordinate systemtransformer 272. Coordinate system transformer 272 receives data fromthe forward kinematics module 562 that indicates the pose of the endeffector 110 relative to the manipulator coordinate system MNPL.Coordinate system transformer 272 generates data indicating the pose ofthe boundary coordinate system relative to coordinate system MNPL basedon the following data: the fixed pose of the boundary coordinate systemrelative to bone tracker coordinate system BTRK; the moving pose of thebone tracker coordinate system BTRK relative to the localizer coordinatesystem LCLZ; the moving pose of the localizer coordinate system LCLZrelative to tool tracker coordinate system TLTR; the fixed pose of tooltracker coordinate system TLTR relative to end effector coordinatesystem EFCT; and, based on the forward kinematics module; the pose ofthe end effector coordinate system EFCT relative to manipulatorcoordinate system MNPL.

Based on the fixed pose of energy applicator 184, coordinate system EAPPrelative to coordinate system EFCT and the moving pose of the endeffector coordinate system EFCT relative to coordinate system MNPL,coordinate system transformer 272 generates data indicating the pose ofthe coordinate system EAPP relative to coordinate system MNPL.

The coordinate system transformer 272 thus provides the cut guide 390with data that indicate poses of both coordinate system EAPP and theboundary coordinate system relative to manipulator coordinate systemMNPL.

In addition to the above data, cut guide 390 contains the previouslystored data defining the poses of the boundary-forming tiles relative tothe origin of the boundary coordinate system. Based on these data, thecut guide 390 performs the process steps described above with respect toFIGS. 21A-21C to determine if the practitioner's intended advancement ofthe instrument 160 would result in the energy applicator 184 crossing aboundary defining tile. If this evaluation tests negative, cut guide 390outputs the integrator-generated pose and velocity as the commanded poseand velocity.

Alternatively, if it appears that the integrator generated position isbeyond a boundary-defining tile, the cut guide 390 generates datadetermining the impulse or impulses that need to be applied to thevirtual rigid body to avoid this motion. The commanded pose output bythe cut guide 390 is based on this impulse (or impulses). Manipulator 50therefore does not advance the arms in a manner that would result in theenergy applicator 184 crossing the tile. Instead, the manipulatoradvances the arms in a manner that maintains the energy applicator 184within the volume defined by boundary. If the energy applicator 184 isbeing used to remove tissue, this method of advancement of the energyapplicator 184 results in the manipulator only allowing the energyapplication to remove the tissue the practitioner requires removed. Thisresults in the remaining tissue having the defined shape, surface 242,desired by the practitioner.

As mentioned above, the gear assemblies that transmit torque from thejoint motors to the shoulders and links are essentially zero backlashgear assemblies. This feature means that, during the actual rotation ofthe gears, there is essentially no slippage, looseness, in the movementof the shoulder or link/links being actuated. The minimization of thisslippage results in very stable movement of the components. Moreover,this minimization results in the precise positioning of the attached armand shoulders. Collectively, these features make it possible for thejoint motors to rapidly reposition the shoulders and links and toperform such repositioning with a high degree of accuracy. This includesthe repositioning that occurs as a result of the reversal of rotationaldirections of the joint motors and gear assemblies.

During manual mode advancement of the energy applicator 184, the jointlimit comparator 582, the interference limit comparator 622 and theworkspace limit comparator 652 perform their above described analyses.If a respective one of the boundaries is crossed, an appropriateconstraining force is supplied to environmental forces summer 379. Theconstraining force, which is applied to the virtual rigid body,essentially prevents the manipulator from advancing the arms in such amanner that would cause a joint to exceed a joint limit, a pair of armsto move beyond their interference limit or the energy applicator 184 toexceed the workspace limit.

While not depicted in the flow charts, the joint limit comparator 582evaluates if any joint has exceeded one of its joint limits; theinterference limit comparator 622 evaluates if any pair of arms are atdistance less than their interference limit; and the workspace boundarycomparator 652 evaluates if the energy applicator 184 has moved beyondits workspace boundary limit. Typically one of these conditions onlyoccurs if the manipulator is damaged, malfunctioning or being subjectedto extremely high external forces. If any of these conditions test true,manipulator controller 124 stops the advancement of the arms and engagesthe brakes, and the instrument power generating unit 163 is deactivated,connections not shown. An error message is displayed to the user. Themanipulator is considered to have entered a disabled state. Themanipulator remains in this state until the error is resolved.

As described above, during the advancement of the instrument, theremoved material logger 275 generates and stores data. These dataindentify the volumes of tissue to which the energy applicator 184 wasapplied.

At any time during the manual mode advancement of the instrument thepractitioner can deactivate the instrument by a second toggling of oneof buttons 164 or 174. In response to this second toggling of a button164 or 174, instrument manager 702 asserts a signal to the toolcontroller 132 that results in the controller deactivating theinstrument power generating unit 163. An additional toggling of thebutton 164 or 174 results in the instrument manager 702 and toolcontroller 132 reactivating the instrument power generating unit 163.

Once the practitioner completes a particular application of the energyapplicator 184 to the tissue, the practitioner releases pressure onswitch 176. In response to the release of switch 176, instrument manager702 asserts the signal to the tool controller 132 that results in thecontroller deactivating the instrument power generating unit 163. Thisprevents activation of the instrument when the practitioner has removedhis/her hand from the instrument.

Sensor signal attenuator 697 also responds to the release of switch 176.When this event occurs, attenuator 697 ramps down the application of thesignals from force/torque sensor 108 to the external forces summer 698.This results in ramping down of the external forces component applied toenvironmental forces summer 379. The ramping down of this componentresults in a like ramping down of the extent to which the forces andtorques output by total force summer 380 include components based on thepractitioner desired instrument positioning.

Integrator 386 also receives data indicating that the switch 176 hasbeen released. In response to receipt of this data, integrator 386rapidly ramps down the magnitude of the velocity signals output by theintegrator. These velocities are ramped down to zero over a time periodthat is typically 250 milliseconds or less. This velocity ramp down canalternatively be accomplished by momentarily increasing the dampingforce applied to environmental force summer 379.

Assuming no other forces are applied to environmental force summer 379,the velocity ramp down results in the stopping of the advancement of theinstrument 160. Joint motor controllers 126 continue to apply currentsto the joint motors 101. These currents cause the joint motors 101 tooutput torques that hold the shoulder and arms in their last positionsbased on the last commanded pose output by cut guide 390. Themanipulator at least momentarily holds the instrument in the last poseprior to release of switch 176.

At the time switch 176 is released, cut guide 390 may be in the processof applying a force to the virtual rigid body to prevent the energyapplicator 184 from crossing a tile. If this condition exists, then therelease of switch 176 does not result in the rapid cessation of theinstrument advancement. The cut guide 390 continues to output forcesthat need to be applied to the virtual rigid body. The outputting ofthese forces therefore results in manipulator continuing to position theinstrument in a manner such that the energy applicator 184 remainswithin the boundaries.

As described above, the release of switch 176 typically results in thecessation of the advancement of the instrument 160 by the manipulator50. Conditions may exist that foster further movement of the instrument.As was mentioned above, one such condition is the determination by thecut guide 390 that it appears that the energy applicator 184 will crossa tile. In some circumstances, cut guide 390 makes this determinationafter the release of switch 176. This determination can occur because,even after switch 176 is released, the software modules remain active.The cut guide 390 continues to selectively generate forces that areapplied to the virtual rigid body to prevent the energy applicator 184from crossing a boundary. This event can occur if, when the instrument160 is stationary, movement of the patient relative to the instrumentresults in the energy applicator 184 apparently crossing a boundary. Ifthe cut guide 390 determines that this crossing is occurring, the cutguide applies forces to the virtual rigid body that effectively move theenergy applicator 184 such that the applicator does not cross theboundary. Stated another way, as a consequence of the movement of thebone, the manipulator 50 may continue to reposition the instrument.

Other conditions may exist that result in some movement of theinstrument 160 by the manipulator 184 when switch 176 is in the releasedstate. Specifically, if the joint motors 101 are subject to backdrivingforces or one of the behavior control modules outputs a constrainingforce, non-zero addends are still applied to the environmental forcessummer 379. Total force summer 380 in turn, outputs a non-zero totalforce and total torque to the acceleration calculator 384. If theseoutputs from total force summer 380 are non zero, integrator 386, afterinitially ramping down the velocity, ramps up the velocity to thevelocity based on the total force and total torque. Thus, if thebackdriving or constraining forces are present, the manipulator 50,after initially stopping the advancement of the instrument, continues toreposition the instrument. This advancement occurs until theintegrations of these accelerations over time due to these forces fallto zero.

Once the integrations of these accelerations over time fall to zero andthe cut guide 390 no longer applies forces to the virtual rigid body,the manipulator 50 holds instrument 160 in a static pose. Manipulator 50remains in this state until repositioned by the practitioner.

Upon completion of a procedure, the manipulator may be deactivated bydepressing a button presented on the user interface 130, button notshown. Upon depression of this button, the brakes 103 are reengaged.Once a sufficient time has elapsed to ensure that the brakes 103 areengaged, manipulator controller 124 sends commands to the joint motorcontrollers 126. In response to these commands, the joint motorcontrollers terminate the applied currents to the joint motors 101.

B. Semi-Autonomous Mode

The initialization steps performed to operate the manipulator in themanual mode are performed to prepare the manipulator for semi-autonomousoperation. The instrument 160 and energy applicator 184 are connectedtogether and to the end effector 110. The appropriate calibrations,navigation registrations and boundary positioning are performed. Theboundaries are loaded into the cut guide 390.

In some versions, manipulator 50, once enabled for manual modeoperation, is ready to semi-autonomously advance the instrument 160. Byreference to FIG. 28A, it is observed that an initial step in thesemi-autonomous operation of the instrument is the generation of thetool path along which the energy applicator 184 should advance, step760. In step 760, tool path generator 234 generates data defining toolpath 248 (FIG. 15C). This tool path, again a set of path segments 256,262 and 266, defines the locations along the tissue to which the energyapplicator 184 should be applied. As part of step 760, tool pathgenerator 234 references the data retrieved from the removed materiallogger 275. When step 760 is executed at the start of the procedure,these data indicate that there has been no application of the energyapplicator 184 to the tissue. If this condition exists, the startingpoint, point 258, of the tool path against the tissue, is the originallycalculated path starting point.

Alternatively, the data from removed material logger 275 may indicatethe energy applicator 184 was previously applied to one or more volumesof the tissue. Often this is due to previous removal of tissue by themanual mode advancement of the instrument. If this condition exists,tool path generator 234 generates a revised tool path 248. This revisedtool path 248 is a collection of path segments along the remainingtissue, the tissue to which the energy applicator 184 was not applied,over which the energy applicator 184 should now traverse. The generationof the revised tool path 248 avoids having the energy applicator 184move in free space to attempt to remove tissue that was previouslyremoved. As a consequence of the generation of this revised tool path,the tool path generator may generate a new location for point 258, thestarting point for the tool path along the tissue against which theenergy applicator 184 is to be applied.

It should be appreciated that even though the tool path generator 234defines a set of path segments that extend over the tissue to beremoved, not all path segments may extend over tissue. Some pathsegments may extend in free space between path segments that do extendover tissue.

Prior to the start of semi-autonomous advancement of the instrument, thepractitioner, by engaging in manual mode operation of the manipulator50, positions the instrument so that origin of coordinate system EAPP isin what is referred to as a target region, step 762. This target regionis a space in close proximity to the starting point of the on-tissuetool path, point 258. In some versions, this target region is the volumeabove the bone within 2 cm of path start point 258. In other versions,this target region is the volume within 1 cm above the path start point258. Based in part on the tracking of the instrument and bone by thelocalization engine, the coordinate system transformer 272 generatesdata indicating the proximity of the origin of energy applicator 184coordinate system EAPP to the start point 258. The coordinate systemtransformer 272 provides data to the navigation processor 218. Based onthese data, navigation processor 218 presents images on interface 220indicating the position of the energy applicator 184 relative to thetool path start point 258. The practitioner references this display inorder to so position the instrument.

Once the practitioner completes coarse positioning of the instrument,manipulator controller 124 continues to hold the instrument in the lastcommanded pose. This assumes that neither the arms nor instrument aresubjected to constraining or backdriving forces.

Once it is believed that the instrument is in the target region, and thepractitioner wants to initiate semi-autonomous operation, thepractitioner depresses the pendant trigger switch 194, step notillustrated. User interface 130 continually monitors pendant 190 todetermine whether or not the trigger switch is depressed, step 764. Thedepressing of trigger 194 places the manipulator in the semi-autonomousmode. Throughout the time period the practitioner wants to advance theinstrument semi-autonomously, pendant trigger 194 must remain depressed.As discussed in more detail below, the release of pendant trigger 194returns manipulator 50 to the manual mode.

One immediate effect of the placement of the instrument in thesemi-autonomous mode is that the tool path generator 234 generates apath segment that extends through free space, step 766. The free spacepath segment is the portion of the tool path along which the energyapplicator 184 should advance to reach point 258.

Prior to the depression of trigger 194, user interface 130 sets the useradjustment input to feed rate calculator 284 to zero, step not shown.Consequently, when trigger 194 is initially depressed, the feed ratecalculator 284 outputs a default instrument feed rate of zero. Theseoutput signals therefore cause the tool path force calculator 278 toinitially generate a set of forces and torques to the total force summer380 that essentially hold the energy applicator 184 in the position inwhich it is located at the time trigger 194 is depressed. Often theforces and torques output by the tool path force calculator 278 at thisstage in the semi-autonomous advancement of the instrument are close tozero.

Upon initial depression of pendant trigger 194, manipulator controller124 also verifies that the origin of the energy applicator 184coordinate system EAPP is within the target region. If the energyapplicator 184 is outside of the target region, the likelihood increasesthat the free space path segment may cross one of the boundary definingtiles or a section of tissue that is not to be cut. Accordingly,manipulator 50 only allows semi-autonomous instrument advancement tobegin when energy applicator 184 is in the target region.

In FIG. 28A, steps 768 and 770 represent the process by which themanipulator 50 evaluates the proximity of the origin of the energyapplicator 184 coordinate system EAPP to tool path point 258. Step 768is the determination by the tool path generator 234 of the distance fromthe energy applicator 184 to point 258. Step 770 is the evaluation ofwhether or not this distance indicates that the energy applicator 184 iswithin the target region. If the instrument is not within the targetregion, a message is presented on interface 220, step 772. Thepractitioner must then reposition the instrument. To so reposition theinstrument, the practitioner must first release trigger 194, step notshown. In the described version, as a consequence of the release oftrigger 194, manipulator automatically cycles back to step 760.

When it is determined that the origin of coordinate system EAPP is inthe target region, the tool path generator 234 sends data regarding thisfact to the instrument manager 702, step not shown. The instrumentmanager 702, in turn, sends a command to the tool controller 132. Thiscommand instructs the tool controller to apply energization signals tothe instrument that result in the actuation of the instrument powergenerating unit 163. Collectively the above steps are represented inFIG. 28A as step 774. To adjust the operational settings used fordriving the instrument 160, commands are entered through buttonspresented on manipulator display (buttons not illustrated). Based on thedepression of these buttons, the user interface 130 sends commands tothe tool controller 132 that adjust the operation of the tool powergenerating unit 163, step not shown.

Should the evaluation of step 770 test positive, the tool orientationregulator 368 defines the reference surface 369, aperture 370 andcentering point 371, step 776. These geometric landmarks are definedbased on a representation of actual pose of the instrument 160 relativeto the bone. The commanded pose, transformed into coordinate systemBONE, is employed as the representation of the actual pose.

Once the practitioner is ready to begin semi-autonomous advancement ofthe instrument 160, the practitioner depresses button 195, step notillustrated. In some versions, user interface 130, based on thedepression of buttons 193 and 195, outputs a coefficient representativeof the user adjustment of the feed rate. In some versions, thecoefficient is 0.0, 0.25, 0.40, 0.70 or 1.0. This is the coefficientthat is applied to feed rate calculator 284 as the USER ADJUST input.Each depression of pendant button 193 results in the user interfacereadjusting the feed rate coefficient down a level. Each depression ofpendant button 195 results in the user interface readjusting the feedrate coefficient up to the next higher level. User interface 130continually monitors the pendant 190 to determine whether or not eitherof buttons 193 or 195 is depressed, step 778. For the purposes ofunderstanding the invention it should be understood that a necessarycommand to start instrument advancement is a command to reset the USERADJUST coefficient to above 0.

The initial depression or depressions of button 195 causes userinterface 130 to upwardly adjust the level of the USER ADJUSTcoefficient applied to the feed rate calculator 284. The level to whichthis coefficient is set is a function of the number of times button 195is pulsed. The feed rate calculator 284, in response to receipt of thisnon-zero coefficient, outputs a non-zero instrument feed rate, step notshown. This assumes that none of the other coefficients applied to feedrate calculator 284 are zero. Based on this indication that theinstrument is to advance at a non-zero speed, the downline modules ofthe tool path force generator 234 cooperate to output the sequence offorces and torques needed to be applied to the virtual rigid body tocause the advancement of the energy applicator 184 along the tool path.These forces and torques are applied to the total force summer 380. Inturn, the modules down line from the total force summer 380 cooperate toresult in the desired advancement of instrument 160 and energyapplicator 184, step 782. While the advancement of the instrument isdepicted as a distinct step, it is appreciated that the below describedsteps occur while the instrument is advancing semi-autonomously.

Initially in this advancement of the energy applicator 184, the energyapplicator 184 moves along the free space path segment; the path segmentthat leads to point 258. From point 258 the energy applicator 184advances along an on-tissue path segment. In the described version,wherein the energy applicator 184 is a bur, this means that, as a resultof this advancement of the energy applicator 184 beyond point 258, therotating bur head is pressed against tissue. Owing to the geometry ofthe bur head, the rotation of the bur head by the instrument powergenerating unit (motor 163), and the force applied to the bur head bythe manipulator 50, the bur head removes the tissue against which it isapplied, step not identified.

In the FIGS. 28A-28G the steps are depicted as occurring sequentially.It should be appreciated that many of the steps occur both continuallyand essentially simultaneously throughout the time in which theinstrument is semi-autonomously advanced. In some cases the functionsrepresented by the process steps are implemented as independentcontinuous functions. FIGS. 28A-28G do not represent the order in whichprocess steps are executed by the modules or the decisions made by themodules. The Figures represent the aggregate effect perceived by thepractitioner of the above-described processes performed by the modules.

As the energy applicator 184 advances against the tissue, the removedmaterial logger 275 generates and stores data indicating the portions ofthe tissue to which the energy applicator 184 was applied, step 784.These data are used to update the previously acquired data identifyingthe portions of the tissue to which the energy applicator 184 wasapplied. In subsequent executions of step 760, tool path generator 234employs these updated data to generate the revised tool paths.

During operation of manipulator 50 in the semi-autonomous mode, theforce overrider 375 performs its previously described monitoring of themanipulator and the instrument. The determination of the power output bythe energy applicator 184 is represented by step 786. A determinationthat the power output is in excess of the pre-defined lower limit valuefor the designated time period, is interpreted by the manipulator 50that the system of this invention may be operating in an undesiredstate. Accordingly, as part of step 786 the indicia of the power outputby the energy applicator 184 is compared to the lower limit value forthis indicia. If this evaluation tests true, the force overrider 375sends a command to the instrument manager 702. In response to thiscommand, instrument manager 702 instructs controller 132 to deactivatethe instrument power generating unit 163. Tool controller 132consequently deactivates the instrument. The above steps collectivelyform an execution of step 794. Force overrider 375 instructs the feedrate calculator 284 to ramp the instrument feed rate to zero. Thisresults in the manipulator stopping the advancement of the energyapplicator 184. This is represented if FIG. 28B as an execution of step796.

Force overrider 375 also causes the user interface 130 to present amessage identifying the reason semi-autonomous advancement of theinstrument was terminated, step 798. This gives the surgeon theopportunity to investigate why the instrument is outputting more torquethan expected so as to determine if an undesirable condition exists atthe site to which the energy applicator 184 is applied.

The stopping of the advancement of the instrument by manipulator 50 instep 796 does not stop the manipulator from continuing to regulate theextent to which the joint motors 101 output torques. The forces andtorques output by tool path force calculator 278 are the forces andtorques that need to be applied to the virtual rigid body to maintainthe energy applicator 184 in its last target position. Total forcesummer 380 and the downline modules cause the joint motors 101 to outputtorques that result in the arms 68 and 70 holding the energy applicator184 in the last target position, step not shown.

While manipulator 50 is still in the semi-autonomous mode, themanipulator, after step 798, is not advancing the energy applicator 184.This provides the practitioner the opportunity to attend to thecondition that resulted in the halting of applicator advancement.Manipulator controller 124 allows the practitioner to restart thesemi-autonomous advancement of the energy applicator 184 after thewarning has been acknowledged. Step 799 represents the force overrider375 waiting for this acknowledgement. The practitioner makes thisacknowledgment by depressing a button. When the manipulator 50 is inthis state, instrument button 172 may function as the button that isdepressed for the practitioner to acknowledge the warning of step 798.

Once the warning is acknowledged, the force overrider 375 places themanipulator in a state in which it can continue the currentsemi-autonomous tool advancement. This is represented by the transitionfrom step 799 back to step 774. The instrument manager 702 again assertscommands that result in the actuation of the instrument power generatingunit 163. The instrument orientation landmarks are reset in thereexecution of step 776. Then, based on practitioner resetting the USERADJUST coefficient above 0.0, the reexecution of step 778, the energyapplicator 184 is again advanced, step 782 is executed.

Still another component of step 786 is the comparison of the indicia ofpower output by the energy applicator 184 to the higher limit level ofthis indicia for the designated time period. The testing true of thisevaluation is interpreted by the force overrider 375 that there is agreater likelihood that the manipulator is in an undesirable state.Accordingly, should this evaluation test true, the manipulatorcontroller takes the steps necessary to transition to the manual modeand deactivate the operation of the energy applicator 184. This isrepresented as the branching from step 786 to the below described steps864 and 866.

Step 788 represents the monitoring by the force overrider of forceF_(INST) output by force calculator 358. In step 788, force overrider375 compares force F_(INST) to its associated lower limit and upperlimit values as described above. If the evaluation indicates that forceF_(INST) has exceeded its lower limit value for the designated timeperiod is interpreted as indicating that there is an obstruction 828 inthe vicinity of the surgical site that is inhibiting the advancement ofthe energy applicator 184. Accordingly, should this evaluation of step788 test true, the force overrider 375 causes the previously describedsteps 794, 796, 798 and 799 to be executed.

This provides the surgeon the opportunity to determine why theadvancement of the energy applicator 184 is being inhibited. The surgeoncan, if appropriate, take steps to attend to the condition causing theenergy applicator force calculator 358 to indicate that large magnitudeforces/torques need to be applied to the virtual rigid body.

In step 788, force overrider 375 may determine that force F_(INST) hasexceeded its higher limit value for the designated time period. Thetesting true of this evaluation is interpreted as an indication thatthere is a greater likelihood that the manipulator is in an undesirablestate. Accordingly, manipulator controller branches to steps 864 and 866to return to manual mode and deactivate the energy applicator 184.

Force overrider 375 also monitors the signals representative of theforces and torques sensed by sensor 108, step 804. This monitoring isperformed to determine if excessive external forces are being applied tothe instrument 160 or energy applicator 184. As a result of the normalresistance of the tissue to which the energy applicator 184 is applied,there is some resistance to the advancement of the instrument 160.During semi-autonomous advancement of the instrument, the force/torquesensor 108, in response to the application of the tissue resistance,outputs signals indicating that the sensor is being exposed to a minimallevel of forces and torques.

The evaluation may indicate that the forces and torques sensed by sensor108 exceeded the lower limit values for more than the designated timeperiod. This event could occur if an obstruction 828 imposes some sortof resistive force that inhibits advancement of the energy applicator184. If this condition tests true, the force overrider 375 branches tosteps 794, 796, 798 and 799 to temporarily stop the semi-autonomousadvancement of the energy applicator 184.

Further, during semi-autonomous advancement of the instrument, acondition may occur that causes the surgeon to suddenly attempt toreposition the instrument. When taking this action, the practitioner mayinadvertently not release the pendant trigger 194. Should this eventoccur, in response to the practitioner's efforts to displace theinstrument away from the tool path, the force/torque sensor 108 isexposed to relatively high forces and torques. These forces and torquesare above the high limit force/torque limits maintained by the forceoverrider 375. Accordingly, in step 804, force overrider also evaluatesthe output of sensor 108 to determine if these forces/torques haveexceeded their higher limit values for a time greater than thedesignated time period.

If the above evaluation tests true, force overrider 375 asserts commandsthat result in the deactivation of the instrument power generating unit,step 808. The force overrider 375 also asserts commands that result inthe stopping of the semi-autonomous advancement of the instrument, step810. The same software and hardware components that execute steps 794and 796 perform, respectively, steps 808 and 810.

The force overrider 375 also ramps the force F_(INST) output by theenergy applicator force calculator to zero. This takes the manipulatorout of the semi-autonomous mode and returns the manipulator to manualmode operation, represented by step 811. Owing to the magnitude of theforces and torques that are applied by the practitioner, the backdriveforces are greater than the threshold values stored in the deadbandfilter 695. External forces summer 698, based on the practitionerapplied forces, outputs a force to the environmental force summer 379.Consequently, even though switch 176 may not be depressed, themanipulator 50, as represented by step 812, repositions the instrumentin response to the forces and torques the practitioner applies to forcethe energy applicator off the tool path.

Once the instrument is so repositioned, the manipulator returns to step760. Semi-autonomous advancement of the instrument is reactivated by thedepression of the pendant trigger, step 764.

During the advancement of the energy applicator 184, the toolorientation regulator 368 monitors the orientation of the instrument160. In FIG. 28C this is shown as a separate step 814. It should beunderstood that this monitoring occurs simultaneously with theadvancement of the energy applicator 184. It should be understood thatduring this process, the location of reference surface 369, aperture 370and centering point 371 are defined relative to coordinate system BONE.

The changes in orientation of the instrument during semi-autonomousadvancement are explained by initial reference to FIGS. 29A and 29B.These Figures depict the initial orientation of the instrument andenergy applicator 184. Here, the instrument longitudinal axis extendsthrough the centering point 371 in aperture 370. The instrumentlongitudinal axis is perpendicular to reference surface 369.

During semi-autonomous advancement of the instrument, the objective isto advance the energy applicator 184 along the tool path. From above, itshould be appreciated that this is the movement that results from theapplication of forces and torques that are applied to the virtual rigidbody based on the calculations performed by the energy applicator forcecalculator 358.

As discussed above, the tool orientation regulator 368 generates anotherset of forces and torques that are applied to the virtual rigid body.This is to ensure that, at a minimum, the manipulator orients theinstrument so that the instrument axis remains in the reference surfaceaperture 370. Ideally, the manipulator is able to orient the instrumentso the instrument axis intersects the aperture centering point 371.

FIGS. 30A and 30B, depict when the origin of the energy applicatorcoordinate system EAPP is spaced a relatively short distance away from aline extending normal to reference plane 369 through centering point371. As the energy applicator 184 advances from the position of FIG. 29Bto the position of FIG. 30B, forces F_(ORNT) are output by the toolorientation regulator 368 for application to the virtual rigid body.These are force F_(ORNT) that results in the manipulator pivoting theinstrument so the common axis continues to extend through centeringpoint 371.

As depicted in FIG. 31, during semi-autonomous advancement of theinstrument, the manipulator may position the energy applicator 184 sothe applicator is advanced along a portion of the tool path 248 locatedoutside of the area subtended by aperture 370. This area is depicted bydashed enclosure. Even when the energy applicator 184 is so positioned,tool orientation regulator 368 applies a force F_(ORNT) that results inthe manipulator orienting the instrument so the common axis essentiallyintersects centering point 371. In some constructions, when the toolorientation regulator 368 defines an aperture 370 having a radius of 3cm in a reference surface 369 located approximately 15 cm above thesurface of the tissue, the manipulator 50 is able to position the energyapplicator 184 so it can be located 20 cm or more from the normal linethrough the centering point 371. Even when the energy applicator 184 islocated at the perimeter of this area, the force F_(ORNT) applied to thevirtual rigid body will result in the manipulator orienting theinstrument so the common axis essentially intersects the centering point371.

Manipulator 50 is further configured so that minor obstructions 828 thatmay present themselves above the tool path 248 do not block theadvancement of the energy applicator 184 along the tool path. Theseobstructions 828 include tissue that projects outward above tool path.Instruments, such as suction applicators and retractors may also projectabove the tool path. In FIG. 28C, whether or not an obstruction ispresent is depicted as the condition test of step 818. Assuming anobstruction is not present, the condition of step 818 is negative, thissemi-autonomous advancement of the instrument continues as representedby the progression to step 836.

If an obstruction is present, the condition of step 818 is positive, theobstruction resists the ability of tool orientation regulator 368 tooutput a sufficient force F_(ORNT) that results in the manipulatormaintaining the common axis through the centering point 371, step notillustrated. In response to this event occurring, manipulator 50advances the instrument such that the common axis moves toward theperimeter of aperture 370, step not illustrated. The displacement of thecommon axis away from the centering point 371 can be said to result fromthe resistive forces of the obstruction being out of equilibrium with,greater than, the force F_(ORNT) applied to the virtual rigid body. Inresponse to this displacement, tool orientation regulator adjusts forceF_(ORNT) to ensure that the manipulator 50 orients the instrument sothat the common axis remains within the aperture, step 824. Typicallythis force F_(ORNT) is greater in magnitude than the previously outputforce F_(ORNT).

In response to the newly applied force F_(ORNT) the manipulator mayposition the instrument so that the common axis intersects the aperturethrough a point in aperture 370 spaced from centering point 371. FIGS.32A, 32B and 32C depict the instrument in this position. This newlocation of the common axis is the location where force F_(ORNT) appliedto the virtual rigid body and the resistive force of the obstruction 828is in equilibrium.

The obstruction 828 may yield to the instrument, step 826. This mayoccur if the obstruction 828 is yieldable material, such as soft tissue.Alternatively, this event may occur if the obstruction 828, thoughrigid, is fixed to yieldable tissue.

If the obstruction 828 yields, the manipulator continues to advance theinstrument. As the obstruction 828 yields, force F_(ORNT) applied to thevirtual rigid body becomes greater than the resistive force of theobstruction 828. This results in the manipulator restoring theinstrument to an orientation in which the common axis essentiallyintersects centering point 371, step not shown. In FIG. 28F, theyielding of the obstruction is identified as a branching to step 836.

Even if the obstruction does not yield, the condition of step 826 isnegative, the common axis may remain within the reference surfaceaperture 370, the condition evaluation of step 830. If this conditionexists, the manipulator 50 continues the semi-autonomous advancement ofthe instrument, branching to step 836.

Alternatively, the result of the condition test of step 830 may benegative. In this event, tool orientation force regulator 368 outputs ahigh magnitude force F_(ORNT). This force F_(ORNT) is based on the tablevalues between inflection point 377 and peak point 378 of FIG. 19. Theoutputting of this force F_(ORNT) is represented by step 832.

In a step 834 the magnitude of force F_(ORNT) is compared to the low andhigh limit values associated with this force. This evaluation isperformed by the force overrider 375. If both evaluations test negative,the manipulator, in response to the application of the new forceF_(ORNT) to the virtual rigid body, reorients the manipulator. This isdepicted as the branching back to step 824.

Alternatively, as a result of the evaluation of step 834, forceoverrider 375 may determine that the force F_(ORNT) is above the lowerlimit value for this force for the designated time period. If the forceoverrider 375 makes this determination, the force overrider interpretsthe manipulator in being in a state in which semi-autonomous advancementshould at least be temporarily stopped. This is depicted as thebranching to previously described steps 794, 796, 798 and 799.

In some situations the force F_(ORNT) output by the tool orientationregulator 368 may exceed the high limit value associated with this forcefor more than the designated time period. This event could occur if anobstruction collides with the instrument 160 or energy applicator 184.Accordingly, force overrider 375 interprets this second evaluation ofstep 834 testing true as an indication that manipulator is in anundesirable state. Manipulator controller 124 therefore branches tosteps 864 and 866 to transition the manipulator back to the manual modeand deactivate the instrument.

During the semi-autonomous advancement of the instrument 160 thepractitioner may decide to reset the orientation of the instrument whilethe energy applicator 184 is advanced along the tool path 252. It may bedesirable to so reorient the instrument to avoid having the instrumentcontact tissue or another instrument that may be in the vicinity of thetool path.

Step 836 represents the decision associated with the practitionerdeciding to reorient the instrument. If the practitioner wants to soreorient the instrument, he/she depresses instrument button 172, stepnot shown. User interface 130 monitors the state of this button. As longas the evaluation of step 836 tests negative, tool orientation regulator368 continues to output force F_(ORNT) that results in the manipulatororienting the instrument so the common axis, as closely as possible,intersects the previously defined centering point 371. In FIG. 28C, thisis represented as a progression to step 850.

If the evaluation of step 836 tests positive, tool orientation regulator368 redefines the reference surface 369, the tool aperture 370 andcentering point 371, step 840. These redefinitions of these geometricreference features are based on the current actual pose of theinstrument, represented by the commanded pose.

Consequently, in the subsequent reexecutions of step 814, the inputvariables into the orientation regulator 368 indicate that theinstrument is essentially centered on the centering point 371. Giventhat the instrument is in this state, the tool orientation regulatordetermines that there is no need to apply an appreciable orientingforce, F_(ORNT)=0, to the virtual rigid body, step 842.

During instrument reorientation, the practitioner applies forces andtorques to the instrument to reorient the instrument. These forces andtorques are typically the largest component of the external forceF_(EXT) applied to the environmental forces summer 379. Since F_(ORNT)is zero, tool orientation regulator 368 does not apply forces to thevirtual rigid body that oppose the practitioner applied external forceF_(EXT). Thus, in response to this external force F_(EXT), manipulator50 orients the instrument so the instrument orientation is based on thepractitioner desired orientation, step 844.

While in this process, F_(ORNT) is zero, energy applicator forcecalculator 358 and force transformer 362 continue to output a non-zeroforce F_(INST). This is the force F_(INST) applied to the virtual rigidbody that causes the manipulator to advance the energy applicator 184along the tool path 248. Accordingly, manipulator 50, simultaneouslywith emulating the reorienting of the instrument desired by thepractitioner, continues to position the instrument so the energyapplicator 184 advances along the tool path 248, step 782 continues tobe executed.

Manipulator continues to reorient the instrument according to the aboveprocess steps as long as button 172, remains depressed. This isrepresented in FIG. 28G as the loop back from decision step 846 to step840.

Once the instrument is in the orientation desired by the practitioner,the practitioner releases button 172, step not shown. In response tothis event occurring, tool orientation regulator 368 no longercontinually updates the orientation landmarks based on the commandedpose of the instrument. The landmarks stored when button 172 is releasedare the landmarks upon which the subsequent calculations to determineforce F_(ORNT) are based, step 848. Manipulator continuous with thesemi-autonomous regulation of instrument orientation based on theselandmarks, step 849. Manipulator 50 can then be considered to advance tostep 850.

In some constructions of manipulator 50, the release of button 172 isrecognized as indication that the practitioner has performed the step799 process of clearing the warning presented in step 798. This isbecause a number of the conditions that may have caused manipulator 50to temporarily stop semi-autonomous advancement of the instrument 160are remedied by the reorienting of the instrument.

When manipulator 50 operates in the semi-autonomous mode, user interface130 continually monitors pendant 190 to determine if either buttons 193or 195 are depressed. This is represented in FIG. 28C as the manipulatormonitoring whether or not surgeon has elected to adjust the feed rate ofthe advancement of the energy applicator 184 along the tool path, step850. In response to either of buttons 193 or 195 being depressed, theprocesses described with respect to step 778 are employed to result in anew USER ADJUST coefficient being applied the feed rate calculator 284,step not shown. This results in controller 124 adjusting the rate atwhich the manipulator advances the energy applicator 184 along tool path248, step 858.

If in step 858 the instrument feed rate is set to the zero speed, thetool path force calculator 278 still outputs a force F_(INST). This isthe force F_(INST) applied to the virtual rigid body that results inmanipulator 50 holding the energy applicator 184 at the last determinedtarget position on the tool path, step not illustrated.

In some versions, when the instrument feed rate is set to zero speed,the instrument manager 702 also asserts commands that result indeactivation of the tool power generating unit 163, step notillustrated. In these versions, when button 195 is again depressed toagain cause the semi-autonomous advancement of the instrument,instrument manager 702 causes the instrument power generating unit to bereactivated. User interface 130 applies the non-zero USER ADJUSTcoefficient to feed rate calculator 284, step not illustrated.

Also, in some versions, upon the resetting of the instrument feed rateto a speed greater than zero, the energy applicator force calculator 358initially outputs a force F_(INST) that is essentially opposite indirection of the force F_(INST) that results in the forward advancementof the energy applicator 184 along the tool path. As a consequence ofthis initial force F_(INST) being momentarily applied the virtual rigidbody, the manipulator initially moves the energy applicator 184 in areverse direction along the tool path 248. This movement is typically 2mm or less. Once the energy applicator 184 engages in this backmovement, the instrument power generating unit 163 is reactivated. Oncethe instrument power generating is reactivated, the energy applicatorforce calculator 358 outputs a force F_(INST) that results in themanipulator forward advancing the energy applicator 184 along the toolpath 248.

The above process steps avoid the condition of reactuating the energyapplicator 184 while the applicator is pressed against tissue. Thisreduces the likelihood that the applicator 184, upon reactuation, bindsagainst the tissue.

During the semi-autonomous advancement of the instrument 160, the cutguide 390 monitors the position of the energy applicator 184 relative tothe boundary tiles as if the manipulator is operating in the manualmode, step 860. The method of operation of the cut guide 390 when themanipulator is in the semi-autonomous mode is the same as when themanipulator is operated in the manual mode. Since the manipulator 50positions the energy applicator 184 along the tool path 248, very rarelydoes the cut guide 390 determine that the positions cross one of theboundary defining tiles.

However, there is a possibility that the occurrence of an extraneousevent will cause the rapid transition of the manipulator from thesemi-autonomous mode back into the manual mode. One example of such anevent is the above-discussed act of the practitioner applying a force onthe instrument to redirect the instrument while the manipulator isperforming the semi-autonomous advancement, see step 788. A secondexample of such event is the below-discussed event of the practitionerdepressing instrument switch 176 to position the instrument when theenergy applicator 184 is in close proximity to one of the boundarydefining tiles.

Thus even when the manipulator 50 engages in semi-autonomous energyapplicator advancement, cut guide 390 still verifies that the commandedposition of the energy applicator 184 is within the defined boundary. Ifthe cut guide 390 determines that the energy applicator 184 will crossthe boundary, the cut guide applies an impulse or impulses to thevirtual rigid body. The application of this force can be considered partof step 860. The application of the impulse (or impulses) causes themanipulator 50 to avoid this motion. Thus, the cut guide 390, even whenthe manipulator advances the energy applicator 184 semi-autonomously,substantially eliminates the possibility that the energy applicator 184will move beyond the boundary.

During semi-autonomous advancement of the instrument, the user interfacealso monitors the state of instrument switch 176, step 862. If switch176 is depressed, the user interface transitions the manipulator back tomanual mode operation, step 864. This process involves the zeroing outof the forces F_(INST) and F_(ORNT) that the tool path force calculator278 outputs to total force summer 380. Sensor signal attenuator 697ramps up the extent to which the forces and torques measured by sensor108 function as components of force F_(EXT). Collectively, these actionstransition the manipulator from the state in which it performssemi-autonomous advancement to one in which it performs instrumentpositioning that emulates the positioning that would have occurred basedon the practitioner applied forces and torques.

During this transition between operating modes, instrument manager 702generates a command to the tool controller to deactuate the instrument,step not shown. Upon receipt of the command, tool controller 132 negatesthe application of energization signals to the instrument powergenerating unit, step 866.

Manipulator controller then generates a new on tissue tool path; step760 is reexecuted.

User interface 130 continually monitors the pendant 190 to determine thestate of trigger 194, step 868. If trigger 194 remains depressed,manipulator 50 continues to advance the instrument in thesemi-autonomous mode. In FIGS. 28B and 28D, this is depicted as the loopback from step 868 to step 782.

Once trigger 194 is released, the manipulator returns to the manual modeoperation and deactuates the energy applicator 184. This is representedby branching from step 868 to steps 864 and 866. It should be understoodthat in this version of the execution of step 864, the practitioner maynot be applying forces and torques to the instrument. Consequently, inaddition to forces F_(INST) and F_(ORNT) being zeroed out, force F_(EXT)is also essentially zero. Accordingly, the forces F_(TTL) and torquesT_(TTL) output by total force summer 380 are the forces and torquesthat, applied to the virtual rigid body, result in the manipulator 50holding the instrument in a static pose. This is the pose in which theenergy applicator 184 is in the last target position along the tool path248.

As described above, once step 866 is executed, a new on tissue tool pathis generated, step 760 is reexecuted.

Once semi-autonomous advancement of the instrument has been terminated,the surgeon can position the instrument and actuate the instrumentthrough manual mode operation.

Semi-autonomous advancement of the instrument 160 can be restarted bythe surgeon again depressing pendant trigger 194. This will again resultin the evaluation of step 764 testing positive.

V. Alternative Embodiments

It should be appreciated that the manipulator of this invention is notlimited to the described configuration wherein there is a manipulatorcontroller and a navigation processor. In some versions, a singleprocessor or a multi-core processor, multiple multi-core processors orGPUs, plural DSPs or a set of parallel processors may perform the dataprocessing performed by these processors. Likewise, some versions mayhave more processors than what has been described. For example, a firstprocessor may perform some of the navigation data processes, a secondprocessor may perform the behavior control functions and a thirdprocessor may perform the motion control processes. Likewise, in someversions many of the navigation and behavior control functions may beperformed by a processor dedicated to these tasks.

Likewise the various software modules that have been described should beunderstood to be illustrative and not limiting. Other software modulesmay perform the processing steps that result in the joint motors 101outputting torques necessary to: emulate the advancement of theinstrument if the practitioner's forces and torques were applied to theinstrument; semi-autonomously advance the instrument; and allow thepractitioner to adjust instrument orientation during semi-autonomousadvancement.

Also, in some versions, by pressing buttons presented on one of theinterfaces 130 or 220, it is possible to change the characteristics ofthe mass and inertia properties of the virtual rigid body. For example,it is possible to decrease or increase the magnitude of the virtualmass. Decreasing the virtual mass causes the manipulator to respond asif the instrument and energy applicator 184 were, in comparison to theiractual mass, lower in mass. Consequently, when the practitioner appliesforces and torques to the instrument, the emulated movement of theinstrument by the manipulator would cause the instrument to feel bothlower in mass in the hand of the practitioner and more responsive to theapplied forces and torques. The inertia properties that can be resetinclude the inertia tensor or matrix.

Another inertia property that can be changed is the location of thecenter of mass of the virtual rigid body. The movement of the center ofmass of the virtual rigid body is performed by redefining the locationof this point relative to the origin of end effector coordinate systemEFCT. This movement of the center of mass of the virtual rigid bodyresults in the manipulator positioning the instrument in a manner thatprovides the practitioner the impression that the center of mass of theinstrument is shifted. It should be understood that it may even bepossible to position the center of mass so it is not located within theinstrument 160. It is further possible to redefine the orientation ofthe coordinate system CMVB relative to coordinate system EFCT or otherstatic coordinate system associated with the instrument 160 or energyapplicator 184.

Similarly, there is no requirement that the Z-axis of energy applicatorcoordinate system EAPP be oriented so to extend in a direction oppositethe corresponding axis of coordinate system CMVB. In someimplementations, these axes may be oriented in the same direction.Further in some versions, these Z axes may be angled relative to eachother. Further, these axes may even be parallel to each other.

Moreover, while the various Z-axes of the different coordinate systemsare generally shown being vertical, this should not be interpreted aslimiting. In alternative constructions, for one or more coordinatesystem the X axis or Y axis may be the axis that is most closelyperpendicular to the horizontal base plane of the cart 52.

Likewise the specific processing steps may be different from what hasbeen described and variations in the algorithms and models are possible.For instance, there is no requirement that the forces F_(EAPP) andF_(BNDR) calculated by, respectively, the energy applicator forcecalculator 358 and the cut guide 390, be calculated for application tothe origin of coordinate system EAPP. In alternative versions of thisinvention, these forces are calculated for application to other pointsthat are typically spaced away from the origin of coordinate systemCMVB. The exact location to which these forces are applied is often afunction of the geometry of the energy applicator 184. Likewise, thereis no requirement that both the energy applicator 358 and cut guide 390apply the forces they respectively generate to the same point. Withregard to the cut guide, the point to which force F_(BNDR) is appliedmay be recalculated each frame. The point of application of forceF_(BNDR) may be a function of a boundary crossing analysis step in whichthe cut guide 390 determines which point on or section of the energyapplicator 184 first would cross a boundary-defining tile. The samealternatives are possible with regard to the calculation of forceF_(EAPP_SPR). As described below, in some version, energy applicatorcalculator 358 may calculate this force F_(EAPPP_SPR).

For example, there is no requirement that the interference limitcalculator comparator 622 always include models of the links that arecylindrical or capsule-shaped. The links could be modeled asrectilinear, conical or triangular structures. In some versions, eachlink may be modeled as a collection of one or more structures whereinthe individual structures are of different sizes and/or shapes.

Similarly there is no requirement that in all versions that runningaverage filters be employed to generate the target positions along thetool path 248. Alternative smoothing techniques including: usingsplines; finite impulse response filtering; infinite impulse responsefiltering; Chebychev filtering; Butterworth filtering; and blendinglinear segments with parabolic blends.

Likewise, there is no requirement that the signal ramping, such as thesignal ramping performed by attenuator 697, always be performed usingfinite impulse filters. Other processes such as infinite impulseresponse filtering, Chebychev filtering, Butterworth filtering oradaptive filtering may alternatively be employed to perform this signalramping.

There is no requirement that in all versions the feed rate calculator284 always calculate the instrument feed rate based on the instantaneousvalues of the variables. In some versions, these input variables may befiltered. Likewise, there may be reasons to vary the coefficients thatare used as the multipliers to establish the extent any variable effectsfeed rate. The application of a particular variable may be delayed. Thevarying of the coefficient may be filtered or ramped to blend in/out theeffect of the change in the magnitude of the coefficient. This filteringor blending results in a smoothing out of the advancement of theinstrument 160. This smoothing out of the advancing of the instrumentmay reduce the likelihood that, owing to rapid changes in thepositioning of the instrument, the manipulator may become unstable orovershoot the target position. The effect of any variable may beselectively disregarded. For example, it may be desirable to onlygenerate the instrument feed rate based on either the smallest orlargest coefficient. The other coefficients are disregarded.

In some versions, two or more variables into feed rate calculator 284may be combined. This combining may be by summing, multiplying,averaging or dividing. The calculated coefficients may likewise besummed, multiplied, averaged or divided to provide a final coefficientused to, based on the defined feed rate, establish the instrument feedrate. Likewise, there is no requirement that the coefficients may bedetermined solely on the basis of a variable-to-coefficient feed ratetable. Other means to determine these coefficients are based on usingthe variables as input variables into an equation the result of which isthe coefficient used to establish the instrument feed rate. Theequations may be polynomial equations or non-linear equations.

Likewise data other than instrument current draw may be used as the databy the feed rate calculator 284 that serves as the indicia of instrumentpower. These data include, the voltage or duty cycle required to beapplied to the instrument to maintain a constant output. This output maybe speed or temperature. In the case of a closed loop energy outputdevice, the measurement of the output can serve as the indicia ofinstrument power. More specifically, a drop of the output can serve asthe indicia of a change in instrument power. For example, if the sensedparameter is motor speed, a drop in speed indicates there was anincrease in the power demand of the instrument. Based on thisinferential indication that power demand has changed, the INST POWERcoefficient applied to the feed rate calculator 284 is adjusted.

Alternative representations of the torques output by the joint motors101 may be employed to facilitate the determination of the backdrivetorques that are output by these motors. For example, it may not alwaysbe necessary to employ signals representative of the actual currentapplied to joint motors 101 as indicia of the torque output by thesemotors. In alternative configurations of this invention, signalsrepresentative of the commanded currents or feed forward torques inputinto the current control loops of the joint motor controllers 126 areemployed as the signals representative of the torques output by themotors.

Data representative of the actual joint torques may also be supplied bysensors attached to the joint motors 101 or other components integralwith the active joints. Also, in some versions, there is no backdriveforce summer 691. In these versions, a single one of the representationsof actual torque is applied to the back drive torque calculator 693.

Alternative methods to determine the backdrive forces and torques mayalso be employed. For example, in one alternative method of thisinvention, a first difference between the expected torques and thetorques produced by the joint motors 101 is calculated. This set oftorque difference values is then converted into coordinate system CMVBas the first set of backdrive forces and torques. A second difference iscalculated between the expected torques and the torques sensed bysensors 89. This set of torque difference values is then converted intocoordinate system CMVB as the second set of backdrive forces andtorques. These two sets of instrument backdrive forces and torques aresummed together to produce data representing the backdrive forces andtorques. The inputs into this sum may be weighted.

It should be understood that the physical construction of the linksforming the manipulator may vary from what has been described. Forexample in some manipulators with parallel four bar linkages thelinkages may be designed so that the wrists connecting the coupler tothe links may rotate around axes that are laterally offset from the axesof the driven links. Likewise, the wrists may not even rotate aroundaxes that are exactly parallel or perpendicular to the drive links.Similarly, there is no requirement that in all versions, the manipulatorhave plural four bar linkage assemblies. The invention may beconstructed out of plural links that collectively form a single-armserial linkage. In versions that include parallel links that are coupledtogether, the coupler between the links may not be rigid.

Motors other than permanent magnet synchronous motors may be employed asactuators. For example, brushless DC motors, brush-type DC motors,stepper motors and induction motors. Likewise, there is no requirementthat the actuators be electrically driven motors. In some versions theactuators may be hydraulic or pneumatic actuators.

The structure of the joint motor controllers should be understood to bea function of the nature of the motors internal to the actuators.Variations in motor control processes are also possible. For example, itmay be possible to omit the speed control loop when regulating motoroperation.

In some versions, it may be desirable to provide at least one of theactive joints plural encoders. A first encoder monitors the angularposition of the shaft integral with the joint motor 101. Data from thisencoder is used by the joint motor controller to regulate the actuationof the joint actuator. If the joint actuator is an electric motor, thesedata are often used to regulate commutation of the motor windings. Asecond encoder monitors the joint angle. Data from this second encoderis employed by modules such as the forward kinematics module 562 as therepresentation of actual joint angle. This more direct measurement ofthe joint angle is not affected by the inherent tolerances of the geartrain. Accordingly, employing this more direct measurement of jointangle as the actual representation of joint angle may improve theaccuracy with which the manipulator sets the pose of the instrument 160.

In constructions that include plural encoders for at least one of theactive joints, the position data from the plural encoders can be used bythe joint motor controller to regulate actuation of the joint actuator.For example, in some constructions, the data from one encoder, often theencoder associated with the joint actuator, is used as the primaryfeedback variable into the position control loop. The data from thesecond encoder, often the encoder that generates data representative ofactual joint angle, is employed as an input to determine the dampingcomponent of the output signal. In still other constructions of themanipulator of this invention, the primary feedback variable into theposition control loop is a representation of joint angle based on aweighted average of data representative of joint angle from the pluralencoders. Further, the damping component may be based on a differencebetween the representations of the joint angles from the pluralencoders. Employing these plural representations of joint angle as inputvariables into the joint angle position control loop can improve thestability of this control process.

Similarly other methods may be used to map the tissue to which theinstrument is to be applied. In one of these methods the practitioneruses a pointer, the positions of which are tracked by the surgicalnavigation system 210. At the start of the procedure, the practitioneruses the pointer to identify specific landmarks on the body of thepatient. Based on the locations of these landmarks, data are generatedthat define the boundary of the space to which the energy applicator 184should be applied.

In alternative versions, the cut guide uses other methods to determinethe point on the boundary the energy applicator 184 will cross. Inregard to this analysis, there is no requirement that it is alwaysassumed that the velocity of coordinate system CMVB is constant whendetermining where the energy applicator 184 will cross the boundary. Thevelocity of coordinate system BONE may also vary during a frame. Thereis no requirement that the plural energy applicator 184 against boundarycontacts during a single frame be handled sequentially. These contactsmay be aggregated to produce a single effective contact. This singleeffective contact is mitigated by a single boundary constraining force.

Likewise, cut guide 390 may not rely on impulses to prevent the energyapplicator 184 from crossing a boundary. For example, in an alternativeconstruction of manipulator 50, each boundary tile may be modeled as acompliant surface, such as a spring/damper system. When it is determinedthat the energy applicator 184 will move to a position beyond a tile,the spring defining the tile is considered to be compressed. The forcethe spring would apply to oppose this compression is calculated.

Similarly, the manipulator of this invention is not designed solely foruse with tool path generators that generate tool paths that includeparallel path segments. The manipulator of this invention can be usedwith tool path generators that generate tool paths that include segmentsthat, when connected together form either a two-dimensional or threedimensional spiral.

In the described version, the tool path is described as being a set ofpoints along the tissue against which the energy applicator 184 isapplied. This is only exemplary, not limiting. Depending on the type ofinstrument, the tool path may be one that is generated to position theinstrument so that the energy applicator 184 is both a select distancefrom the target tissue and in a defined orientation relative to thetarget tissue. This type of tool path may be generated if, for example,the instrument emits photonic energy. This type of instrument may bedesigned so that, to perform the desired procedure, the distal end tipof the energy applicator 184 needs to be spaced a given distance, forexample 0.1 to 2.0 cm from the tissue to which the energy is to beapplied.

Similarly, in some versions, it is further possible to adjust thespacing of the aperture 370 relative to the surface of the tissue towhich the energy applicator 184 is to be applied. Generally, as thedistance between aperture 370 and the underlying tissue surfaceincreases, the volume of the space in which the instrument can pivotdecreases. Controls to perform this adjustment may be presented asbuttons on one of the interfaces 128 or 220. This allows thepractitioner to perform this adjustment.

In some versions, the tool orientation regulator 368 may not beconfigured to, in the general condition, always generate a forceF_(ORNT) that results in the manipulator 50 positioning the instrumentso that the common axis intersects a fixed centering point. In theseversions, even when an obstruction 828 is not present, the toolorientation regulator 368 output forces F_(ORNT) applied to the virtualrigid body that do not always result in the manipulator positioning theinstrument so the common axis intersects the fixed centering point.Instead, these forces F_(ORNT) only result in the manipulatorpositioning the instrument so the common axis intersects the referencesurface aperture. FIG. 33A and 33B illustrate how the instrument is sopositioned.

A benefit of this version is that it increases the area of surface ofthe tissue below the reference plane to which the energy applicator 184can be applied. An additional benefit of this feature is that it makesit possible to, once a single reference surface and aperture have beendefined, position the instrument over a wide area and use the instrumentto form shapes that are in appreciably different planes.

Still another benefit of this version is that it makes it possible to,when advancing the energy applicator 184 along the tool path, maintainthe instrument in orientations in which the minor angle between thecommon axis and the reference surface 390 does not appreciably vary fromthe normal. This benefit of this version is depicted diagrammatically inFIG. 33C. Here, the distal end tip of the energy applicator 184 is seenin various positions as the applicator advances along the tool path 248.When the applicator 184 is in each of these positions, the forceF_(ORNT) output by the regulator 368 for application to the virtualrigid body only results in manipulator holding the instrument so thecommon axis extends through aperture 370. Since the manipulator is notconstrained to pivot the instrument so the common axis extends throughthe center of the aperture 370, the instrument is able to be maintainedin orientations that often vary less than 45° from the normal.

This method of operating the instrument can be achieved by having thetool orientation regulator 368 dynamically change the position of thelocation of the centering point as the energy applicator 184 is advancedsemi-autonomously. Each new position of the centering point is based onvariables such as the representation of the actual angle of the commonaxis relative to the reference surface 369, applicator target positionsand the commanded pose and commanded velocity of the instrument. Eachnew position of the centering point it is understood is within thereference surface aperture 370. Distance DIST_(INST-CP) is calculatedbased on the distance between the dynamically defined centering pointand the intersection of the common axis with the reference surfaceaperture 370.

Likewise, there is no obligation that orientation regulator 368 alwayscalculate forces and torques applied to the virtual rigid body tomaintain instrument orientation based on spring/damper modeling. Toolorientation regulator 368 could calculate these forces and torques basedon other models that generate the forces and torques applied to thevirtual rigid body to maintain the common axis at least in closeproximity to the centering point.

Impulse force modeling, the modeling employed to determine forces andtorques applied to the virtual rigid body to perform semi-autonomousadvancement of the instrument, can be used to define these forces andtorques. An equation similar to Equation (5) is employed to determineforce F_(ORNT). In this use of Equation (5) the variables upon whichdirection D_(xyz) is based are the location of the centering point andthe intersection of the longitudinal axis of the instrument with thereference plane. Distance Δd is the negative of the magnitude of thedistance between the centering point and the intersection of thelongitudinal axis of the instrument with the reference plane. VelocityV₀ is the velocity of coordinate system CMVB expressed in coordinatesystem CMVB. Velocity V₁ is the velocity of the centering pointexpressed in coordinate system CMVB. The Jacobian used is the Jacobianmatrix from the origin of coordinate system CMVB to the centering pointalong the direction D_(xyz). The remaining terms are the same as areemployed for the impulse modeling of semi-autonomous advancement of theenergy applicator 184.

The computed forces and torques applied to the virtual rigid body toprevent the joints from exceeding their limits, the links from collidingor the manipulator from extending beyond the workspace boundary may alsobe calculated using modeling other than spring/damper modeling. Each oneof these sets of forces and torques could, for example, be computedusing impulse modeling.

When impulse modeling is employed to determine the forces and torquesthat prevent the joints from moving beyond their minimum and maximumjoint limit angles, an equation similar to Equation (5) is employed todetermine force F_(J_L). This equation is employed for each joint whenthe corresponding boundary exceeded angle for the joint is non-zero. Inthis use of Equation (5), the angular components of direction D_(xyz)are the components of the unit vector defining the axis of rotation forthe joint. The linear components of direction D_(xyz) are set to zero.In many cases as a convention, the z-axis is chosen to define the axisof rotation. In this case direction D_(xyz) is set to [0, 0, 0, 0, 0,1]. Distance Ad is the negative of the boundary exceeded angle. VelocityV₀ is the velocity of coordinate system CMVB expressed in coordinatesystem CMVB. Velocity V₁ represents the desired velocity of the jointdefined as a vector having components consistent with the definition ofdirection D_(xyz). For this case it is desired to inhibit advancement ofthe joint beyond the boundary. This is accomplished by setting thecomponent of velocity V₁ corresponding to rotation about the axis tozero. If the above convention is employed, velocity V₁ is the nullvector. The Jacobian used is the Jacobian matrix from the origin ofcoordinate system CMVB expressed in coordinate system CMVB to the jointspace defined by direction D_(xyz). Using this version of Equation (5),force F_(ENV) is the previously defined force F_(ENV) with thepreviously defined force F_(J_L) component removed. The remaining termsare the same as are employed for the impulse modeling of semi-autonomousadvancement of the energy applicator 184.

When impulse modeling is employed to determine the forces and torquesthat prevent the links from colliding, an equation similar to Equation(5) is employed to determine force F_(INF). This equation is employedfor each pair of potentially colliding links when the correspondinginterference boundary exceeded distance for the pair of links isnon-zero. In this use of Equation (5), the linear components ofdirection D_(xyz) are the components of the unit vector defining theline of minimum distance between the links. In many cases this is thecommon normal between the links. The angular components of directionD_(xyz) are set to zero. In many cases as a convention, the z-axis ischosen to be along the line of minimum distance. In this case directionD_(xyz) is set to [0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0]. Distance Δd is the negative of theboundary exceeded distance. Velocity V₀ is the velocity of coordinatesystem CMVB expressed in coordinate system CMVB. Velocity V₁ representsthe desired velocity between the links along the line of minimumdistance, defined as a vector having components consistent with thedefinition of direction D_(xyz). For this case it is desired to inhibitadvancement of the links towards each other along this line. This isaccomplished by setting the component of velocity V₁ corresponding todirection of minimum distance to zero. If the above convention isemployed, velocity V₁ is the null vector. The Jacobian used is theJacobian matrix from the origin of coordinate system CMVB expressed incoordinate system CMVB to the interference space defined by directionD_(xyz). Using this version of Equation (5), force F_(ENV) is thepreviously defined force F_(ENV) with the previously defined forceF_(INF) component removed. The remaining terms are the same as areemployed for the impulse modeling of semi-autonomous advancement of theenergy applicator 184.

When impulse modeling is employed to determine the forces and torquesthat prevent the manipulator from exceeding the workspace boundary, anequation similar to Equation (5) is employed to determine force F_(WSB).This equation is employed when workspace boundary exceeded distanceDIST_(W_B_E) is non zero. In this use of Equation (5), the linearportion of direction D_(xyz) is the previously defined unit directionvector D_(W_B_E). The angular components of direction D_(xyz) are set tozero. Distance Ad is the negative of the distance DIST_(W_B_E). VelocityV₀ is the velocity of coordinate system CMVB expressed in coordinatesystem CMVB. Velocity V₁ represents the desired velocity of coordinatesystem EAPP away from the workspace boundary defined as a vector havingcomponents consistent with the definition of direction D_(xyz). For thiscase it is desired to inhibit advancement of coordinate system EAPPbeyond the workspace boundary. This is accomplished by setting thecomponent of velocity V₁ corresponding to the velocity of the movementbeyond the boundary to zero. This results in the product of distanceDIST_(W_B_E) and velocity V₁ being the null vector. The Jacobian used isthe Jacobian matrix from the origin of coordinate system CMVB expressedin coordinate system CMVB to the point where the line of minimumdistance back to the boundary intersects the boundary along directionD_(xyz). This intersection point is expressed in coordinate system MNPL.Using this version of Equation (5), force F_(ENV) is the previouslydefined force F_(ENV) with the previously defined force F_(WSB)component removed. The remaining terms are the same as are employed forthe impulse modeling of semi-autonomous advancement of the energyapplicator 184.

If impulse modeling is used to determine plural forces applied to thevirtual rigid body, the plural versions of Equation (5) are solvedtogether as a system of equations. The unknowns determined as a resultof the solving of these equations are individual corresponding forces.Each of these forces are scalar forces along their respective D_(xyz)directions. Each force is converted to equivalent forces and torquesacting at the origin of coordinate system CMVB. These conversions areperformed using versions of Equation (6). In each case the respectiveJacobian is employed.

If the set of forces that are being solved include any one of forcesF_(J_L), F_(INF) or F_(WSB), the equations are solved as a linearcomplementarity problem. This is because each one of the forces F_(J_L),F_(INF) or F_(WSB) has the characteristic that it may not be present ifthe corresponding boundary is not exceeded. This problem is of the formin which, for each force and velocity pair, the force must be equal toor greater than zero and the velocity also be equal to or greater thanzero.

If any one of forces F_(J_L), F_(INF) or F_(WSB) are solved for as partof the impulse modeling of forces and torques applied to the virtualrigid body, each of the solved forces is applied directly to the totalforce summer 380. These impulse modeled forces are not applied to theenvironmental force summer 379.

In a process used to generate the workspace boundary force F_(WSB) thereis no need to generate this force based only on the pose of coordinatesystem EAPP. For example, it may be desirable to perform this modelingbased on one of the coordinate systems the pose of which is fixedrelative to coordinate system EAPP. These coordinate system includecoordinate system EFCT and coordinate system CMVB. This modeling controlcould also be based on the evaluating the position/positions of one ormore moveable points on the arms 68 and 70. It may be desirable to modelforce F_(WSB) based on the pose of plural coordinate systems. This typeof modeling might be performed if it is desirable to avoid having anyone of or more than one of plural points on different componentsattached to the manipulator move beyond the workspace boundary.

In some versions, the evaluation of step 770 to determine whether or notthe energy applicator 184 is within the target region at the start ofthe semi-autonomous operation is performed by evaluating the length ofthe free space tool path path segment generated in step 766. If thelength of this path segment is below a maximum length, manipulatorcontroller 124 considers the origin of energy applicator coordinatesystem EAPP to be close enough to the start of the on-tissue pathsegments, point 258, the semi-autonomous advancement of the instrumentcan proceed.

When manipulator 50 is operated in the semi-autonomous mode processesother than impulse based calculations may be used to determine the forceneeded to advance the energy applicator 184 to the target position. Forexample, the forces may be modeled as spring/damping forces. Generallythese spring/damping forces are modeled according to the followingformula:

F _(EAPP_SPR) =K _(EAPP)*DIST_(TRGT-CMND) −D _(EAPP REL) *V _(TRGT-CMND)−D _(EAPP MNPL) *V _(TRGT)   (22)

Here, F_(EAPP_SPR), is the spring/damping force that would need to beapplied to the virtual rigid body at the origin of coordinate systemEAPP to pull the energy applicator 184 along the path segment towardsthe target position. Constant K_(EAPP), is a spring constant;D_(EAPP_REL) is a damping coefficient for the relative velocity; andD_(EAPP MNPL) is a damping coefficient for the velocity in manipulatorcoordinate system MNPL. Distance DIST_(TRGT-CMND) is a position vectordefining the location of the target position relative to the commandposition. Velocity V_(TRGT-CMND) is a vector that provides the relativevelocity of the target position to the commanded position. VelocityV_(TRGT) is a vector that provides the velocity of the target positionin manipulator coordinate system MNPL. It may not be necessary to employthe velocity V_(TRGT) as an input variable for determining the forcethat needs to be applied to the virtual rigid body.

Once F_(EAPP_SPR) is determined, this force is converted to anequivalent set of forces and torques that would need to be applied tothe virtual rigid body at the origin of coordinate system CMVB. Thisconversion may be performed according to the following formula:

F_(INST_SPR)=J^(T)F_(EAPP_SPR)   (23)

Force F_(INST_SPR) are the forces and torques applied to the virtualrigid body. This particular Jacobian J is defined from coordinate systemCMVB to the coordinate system EAPP. Force/torque vector F_(INST_SPR) issubstituted as an input variable for where force/torque variableF_(INST) is otherwise employed.

If none of forces applied to the virtual rigid body to produce forcesF_(TTL) and torques T_(TTL) are determined based on impulse modeling,the forces can all be applied directly to the total force summer 380.This eliminates the need to provide the environmental forces summer 379.

There is no requirement that a specific integration technique be used byeither the integrator or cut guide to determine either velocity or poseof a coordinate system. For example, the semi-implicit Euler method,Verlet, rectangular, trapezoidal, Taylor series expansion or Riemannnumerical integration techniques may be employed. Likewise, in someversions, the period of the frame or period of the integration may bevariable.

In both manual mode and semi-autonomous positioning of the instrument,there is no requirement that the commanded pose/position be the variablerepresentative of actual instrument pose/position employed in the forceand torque calculations. In some versions, the measured pose/position ofthe instrument/energy applicator is employed as the representation ofactual position. This “measured” pose/position includes but is notlimited to the position determined as a result of: the forwardkinematics calculation; and the determination made by monitoring theposition and orientation of the tool tracker. Measurements of the jointsby direct means, such as with joint angle sensors, or indirect means,such as separate external monitoring unit can also be used to producedata used to determined measured pose/position. A goniometer is one suchexternal monitoring unit.

This measured pose/position data, in addition to being used in theforce/torque calculations, may be used as an alternative to thecommanded pose/position data in other calculations. These calculationsinclude: the joint limit calculations; the interference limitcalculations; and the workspace limit calculations. It should likewisebe understood that this substitution need not be absolute. There may besome processes where it is desirable to employ the commandedpose/position as this variable and still others wherein the measuredpose/position is employed. Here it is understood that this substitutionapplies not just to the substitution of measured pose/position data forcommanded pose/position data, but also to the substitution of measuredjoint angles for commanded joint angles.

Similarly, in cases where a representation of actual velocity is needed,either commanded or measured velocity may be employed. This includesrepresentation of actual angular velocity of the joints as well asrepresentations of actual velocity, linear and angular, of theinstrument 160 and the coordinate systems that move with the instrument.

Likewise, there may be instances wherein the most appropriate variablethat is descriptive of actual instrument pose/position, and ormanipulator joint angle is a variable that is derived from a combinationof the commanded pose/position/joint angle and the measuredpose/position/joint angle. This derived value may be: an unweightedaverage; a weighted average; a minimum value; and/or a maximum value.

Further, in some versions, one or more of the forces and torques thatare supplied to either of the force summers 379 or 380 may be multipliedby a coefficient. The product of this multiplication is then used by theforce summer as one of the addend variables upon which the forcesF_(ENV) and F_(TTL) and torques T_(TTL) are based. In some versions,depending on the state of the manipulator, one or more of thecoefficients may change over time. As with the external forces summer,this blending is performed to smooth the movement of the instrument.

For example, when the practitioner depresses either button 172 to resetthe orientation of the instrument 160 or switch 176 when the manipulatoris in the manually operated mode, the forces and torques output by theexternal forces summer 698 may be subjected to a blending process. Inthis process the forces and torques output by summer 698 are multipliedby coefficients. The products of these multiplications are then employedas the addends representative of the surgeon desired movement of theinstrument. Initially, these coefficients may be appreciably belowunity, 0.2 or less. Then over a period of time that is typically lessthan a second and more often less than 0.5 seconds, these coefficientsrise to 1.0. Thus if the surgeon, when depressing button 172 or switch176 is already placing significant forces and torques on the instrument,these forces are and torques are not immediately applied to the forcesummer 380 as addends. This reduces the extent to which the combining ofthese forces and torques into the forces F_(TTL) and torques T_(TTL)results in manipulator rapidly resetting the position of the instrument.

Likewise, it should further be appreciated that the tool orientationregulator 368 may not always keep the position of the reference surfaceand aperture defined within the reference surface constant. Either as aresult of preprogrammed instructions or commands entered through theuser interface the position and geometries of both these geometriclandmarks may be reset.

FIGS. 34A, 34B, and 34C illustrate one situation in which the positionand reorientation of the reference surface and aperture are reset. InFIG. 34A a reference surface 910 is shown in relatively close proximityto the surface of the tissue, bone 902, to which the energy applicator184 is to be applied. The aperture 912 defined in the reference surfaceis, at least in the depicted plane, shown to have a narrow length.Aperture 912 is thus well suited to define the area through which theaxis of the energy applicator 184 should intersect when the energyapplicator 184 is applied to a section of tissue that is relativelysmall in area. This is the section of the tissue which is removed so asto form the initial bore 904 in the bone as depicted in FIG. 34B.

Once bore 904 is formed, the tool orientation regulator defines a newreference surface, surface 918, with aperture 920, as depicted in FIG.34C. Reference surface 918 is spaced further from the surface of bone902 than reference surface 910. Aperture 920 is greater in width thanaperture 912. The change in position of the reference surface andincrease in size in the aperture increases the area in which the originof the energy applicator coordinate system EAPP can be applied relativeto the initial state. This means the energy applicator 184 could then beused, as depicted in FIG. 34C, to form an undercut 906 in the bone 902.This undercut 906, it is observed, has, at least in the depicted plane,a width greater than the diameter across bore 904.

FIGS. 35A, 35B, and 35C depict another situation in which the positionand orientation of the reference surface and aperture are reset. FIG.35A depicts when the reference surface 938 is initially defined so as tobe in a plane generally parallel to the surface of the bone 902 thatappears generally horizontal in the Figure. Aperture 940 is defined insurface 938. Aperture 940 is an aperture from which the tool orientationregulator 368 regulates the orientation of the energy applicator 184when the energy applicator 184 is used to define surfaces 930 and 932 inbone, seen in FIG. 35B.

After surfaces 930 and 932 are defined, the procedure may call for theforming of a surface that is tapered away from surface 932. This is whyin FIG. 35B, a new reference surface 944 is shown. Tool orientationregulator defines reference surface 944 so that it is angled, notparallel to, the top horizontal surface of bone 902. An aperture 946 isdefined in reference surface 944. Given the specifics of the area towhich the energy applicator 184 is to be applied, aperture 946 has awidth, in the plane of the Figures, less than that of aperture 940.

Once reference surface 944 and aperture 946 are defined, the manipulatormay apply the energy applicator 184. Specifically the energy applicator184 may be used to remove bone so as to define surface 936 in FIG. 35C.During this process, the tool orientation regulator 368 maintains theorientation of the energy applicator 184 based on the position ofaperture 946.

While not illustrated it should further be understood that either thecomputer generated or manually defined reference surface and, byextension aperture, need not always be planar. The reference surface andaperture may lie in one or more intersecting planes that are angled toeach other. All or a portion of the reference surface and associatedaperture may even be a curved surface. Likewise, there is no requirementthat the aperture used to establish the limits of the orientation of theenergy applicator 184 be circular in shape.

It should further be appreciated that, for some procedures, the toolorientation regulator may not even define an aperture. Tool orientationregulator 368 may only define a centering point. In these versions, toolorientation regulator 368 outputs a force F_(ORNT) of such magnitudethat the manipulator 50 always orients the instrument so that the commonaxis, with only minimal variance, intersects the centering point. Whenoperating the manipulator 50 in this mode, the presence of manyobstructions 828 may cause the force F_(ORNT) to exceed either theassociated lower limit level or higher limit level associated with thisforce. Force overrider 375 responds as appropriate for the limit levelthat is exceeded.

Tool orientation regulator 368 may be designed such that the manipulator50 holds the instrument 160 in a predetermined orientation relative tothe surface of the tissue against which the energy applicator 184 isapplied. A predetermined orientation may be advantageous when the energyapplicator 184 is a milling cutter, which does not cut well on its axisof rotation. For example, when the energy applicator 184 is a ballcutter, the tooth speed approaches zero along this axis and materialremoval rates and surface finish suffer if cuts are made with theportion of the ball rotating along the axis of rotation presented intothe material to be removed. Cutting in this orientation will alsoincrease the required force to push the cutter into the material to beremoved and will often generate heat at the surface interface. Thus, apose is selected that presents the cutting teeth in an orientation thatprovides the most effective material removal and optimizes the surfacefinish.

Tool orientation regulator 368 may further be designed to output a forceF_(ORNT) that results in the manipulator 50 holding the instrument in afixed orientation relative to the surface of the tissue against whichthe energy applicator 184 is applied. One means of performing thisorientation regulation is to have the orientation regulator output aforce F_(ORNT) that results in the manipulator holding the instrument sothe common axis intersects the reference surface at a fixed angle. Oftenbut not always, this angle is a right angle. This type of orientationregulation is employed if the instrument attached to the manipulator isa drill used to form a bore at a precise angle. The fixed angle or thelocation of the centering point through which common axis intersects canbe updated by the tool path generator as the energy applicator 184 isadvanced.

In versions in which the surgeon manually sets the extent to whichregulator 368 regulates instrument orientation, by entering commandsthrough the user interface 130 the surgeon is able to change theposition and orientation of the reference surface as well as the shapeand size of the aperture. This allows the surgeon to, in real time,change the extent to which the manipulator 50 regulates the orientationof the instrument 160.

Likewise, there is no requirement that the centering point defined bythe orientation regulator be in the center of the aperture defined bythe regulator. Using the user interface, the surgeon may be able todefine the centering point so that it is spaced from the center of thisaperture. Likewise, the surgeon may be able to define this centeringpoint by the selective depression of an instrument switch such as button172. In this implementation, the aperture itself would still be fixed inshape and location relative to the origin of the coordinate system inwhich the aperture is defined.

Some manipulators 50 of this invention are further configured to allowthe adjustment in essentially real time of the boundaries of the areasto which the instrument energy applicator 184 can be applied. Anunderstanding of the establishment of these boundary settings isunderstood by reference to FIGS. 36A, 36B, and 36C. FIG. 36A is a topview depicting the bone 952 for which manipulator 50 is used to assistin the performance of the procedure. Dashed rectangle 954 represents theboundary of the surface of the bone to which the energy applicator 184is to be applied. Also seen is the retracted soft tissue 950 that wasinitially pulled away to expose the surface of bone 952. The surface ofthe skin of the patient is called out with identification number 948.

Retractors 956, seen in FIG. 36B, retain the pulled back tissue awayfrom the exposed bone. The retractors 956 extend into the space abovearea to which the energy applicator 184 is to be applied. Once theretractors 956 are set, a navigation pointer (not illustrated) ispressed against the retractors. The navigation system, by monitoring theposition of the pointer, then generates data indicating the positions ofthe retractors 956 relative to the bone. Based on these data, boundarygenerator 232, generates a revised boundary represented by dashed line960. Boundary 960 while similar to boundary 954 has two notches 962.Notches 962 define the sections of the boundary around and spaced fromretractors 956. Consequently, during operation of the instrument ineither manual or semi-autonomous mode, the behavior control modules nowcooperate to prevent the energy applicator 184 from attempting to moveagainst the tissue covered by the retractors 956. This substantiallyreduces the likelihood that the instrument or energy applicator 184 willcollide with the retractors.

Once the energy applicator 184 has been applied to one section of thebone 952, it may be necessary to, as seen in FIG. 36C, reset thepositions of the retractors 956 to hold another section of soft tissue950 away from the bone. Once the retractors are reset, their positionsare again, through the navigation system, forwarded to the boundarygenerator 232. This results in the generator of a new boundary,represented by dashed line 964, defining the area to which theinstrument should be applied. This new boundary defines notches 966.Notches 966 define the out-of-boundary spaces in which the retractors956 are positioned. This ensures that, even though the retractors 956have been repositioned, the manipulator will not reposition theinstrument in such manner that the energy applicator 184 collides withthe retractors 956.

The boundaries of the aperture upon which the orientation regulator 368determines whether or not the resultant orientation of the instrument iswithin an acceptable range may likewise be defined using a pointer. Instill other versions, the location of markers attached to the patientmay be used to define the perimeters of the aperture defined by theorientation regulator 368. The positions of these markers may bemonitored by the navigation system 210 or by a separate tracking system.When either pointers or markers are employed to establish the boundaryof the aperture defined by the regulator 368, it should be understoodthat the regulator dynamically changes the shape of this aperture.

Likewise, the physical constructions of some of the control members maychange. Manipulator 50 may be provided with a set of foot switches. Oneof these foot switches may perform one or more of the functions ofswitch 176. In these versions, in order to have the manipulator emulatemanual movement of the instrument and/or actuate the instrument, thepractitioner must depress the footswitch.

Similarly, in other versions, the switch that should be depressed inorder to cause the semi-autonomous advancement of the instrument may beon the instrument 160. For example in some versions, the instrument isprovided with an additional button or lever. The surgeon depresses thisbutton on order to cause the semi-autonomous advancement of theinstrument. When the manipulator is operated in this state, buttons 164and 174 no longer function as the buttons that regulate the on/off stateof the instrument power generating unit 163. Instead, buttons 164 and170 perform the functions of pendant buttons 193 and 195, respectively.Button 164 is depressed to decrease the semi-autonomous defined feedrate. Button 174 is depressed to increase the semi-autonomous feed rate.Thus, when the manipulator is operated in this configuration, thesurgeon, using the hand used to hold the instrument 160, is able to:cause the manual positioning of the instrument; take the instrumentin/out of the semi-autonomous mode; and control the semi-autonomous feedrate.

Further, there is no requirement that in all versions, the practitionermust continually depress pendant trigger 194 to cause tool path forcecalculator 278 to output non-zero forces F_(INST) and F_(ORNT). In someversions, the forces applied to the virtual rigid body that result inthe energy applicator 184 advancing along the tool path 248, are outputin response to a single pulse to pendant trigger 194. Manipulator 50advances the instrument until the practitioner applies a second pulse, astop pulse, to trigger 194.

The navigation system used with this manipulator is not limited to thedisclosed system. For example, the manipulator may be used with anelectromagnetic navigation system. Also, there may be wired connectionsbetween the localizer and the navigation trackers.

Removed tissue logger 275 can provide data that indicates the percent ofthe volume of tissue marked for removal that was removed. This providesthe practitioner with an indication of the extent to which the procedurehas been completed. Logger 275 performs this function when themanipulator is operated in either the manual mode or the semi-autonomousmode.

Therefore, it is an object of the appended claims to cover all suchmodifications and variations that come within the true spirit and scopeof this invention.

1. A surgical system for applying an energy applicator to a targettissue, the energy applicator extending from a surgical instrument, thesurgical system comprising: a sensor to measure external forces andtorques placed on the surgical instrument; a surgical manipulatorconfigured to move the energy applicator in a manual mode in response tothe external forces and torques; and at least one controller configuredto: model the surgical instrument and the energy applicator as a virtualrigid body having a virtual mass; calculate, using impulse modeling,constraining forces and torques to be applied to the virtual rigid body;determine total forces and torques based on the external forces andtorques and the constraining forces and torques; and advance the energyapplicator in the manual mode based on the total forces and torques. 2.The surgical system of claim 1, wherein the surgical manipulator isconfigured to advance the energy applicator along a tool path in asemi-autonomous mode based on the total forces and torques.
 3. Thesurgical system of claim 2, wherein the at least one controller isconfigured to determine instrument forces and torques to apply to thevirtual rigid body to move the energy applicator along the tool path inthe semi-autonomous mode.
 4. The surgical system of claim 3, wherein theat least one controller is configured to set the instrument forces andtorques to zero in the manual mode.
 5. The surgical system of claim 1,wherein the constraining forces and torques comprise boundaryconstraining forces and torques.
 6. The surgical system of claim 1,wherein the constraining force and torques comprise joint limitconstraining forces and torques, interference angle constraining forcesand torques, and workspace constraining forces and torques.
 7. Thesurgical system of claim 1, wherein the at least one controller isconfigured to calculate, using the impulse modeling, the constrainingforces and torques to be applied to the virtual rigid body based ondirections in which impulses are to be applied to the virtual rigidbody.
 8. The surgical system of claim 7, wherein the at least onecontroller is configured to: solve a system of equations to determinescalar forces along each of the directions in which the impulses are tobe applied to the virtual rigid body; and convert the scalar forces tothe constraining forces and torques acting in a virtual rigid bodycoordinate system.
 9. The surgical system of claim 8, wherein the atleast one controller is configured to calculate the constraining forcesand torques based on: a Jacobian matrix; a mass and inertia matrix forthe virtual rigid body; and scale factors.
 10. The surgical system ofclaim 1, wherein the at least one controller is configured to advancethe surgical instrument in the manual mode based on a commanded pose anda commanded velocity for the energy applicator.
 11. A method ofoperating a surgical system for applying an energy applicator to atarget tissue, the energy applicator extending from a surgicalinstrument, the surgical system comprising a sensor for measuringexternal forces and torques placed on the surgical instrument, asurgical manipulator configured for moving the energy applicator in amanual mode in response to the external forces and torques, and at leastone controller, the method comprising: modeling, with the at least onecontroller, the surgical instrument and the energy applicator as avirtual rigid body having a virtual mass; calculating, with the at leastone controller, and using impulse modeling, constraining forces andtorques for applying to the virtual rigid body; determining, with the atleast one controller, total forces and torques based on the externalforces and torques and the constraining forces and torques; andadvancing, with the at least one controller, the energy applicator inthe manual mode based on the total forces and torques.
 12. The method ofclaim 11, further comprising the surgical manipulator advancing theenergy applicator along a tool path in a semi-autonomous mode based onthe total forces and torques.
 13. The method of claim 12, furthercomprising the at least one controller determining instrument forces andtorques for applying to the virtual rigid body for moving the energyapplicator along the tool path in the semi-autonomous mode.
 14. Themethod of claim 13, further comprising the at least one controllersetting the instrument forces and torques to zero in the manual mode.15. The method of claim 11, wherein the constraining forces and torquescomprise boundary constraining forces and torques.
 16. The method ofclaim 11, wherein the constraining force and torques comprise jointlimit constraining forces and torques, interference angle constrainingforces and torques, and workspace constraining forces and torques. 17.The method of claim 11, further comprising the at least one controllercalculating, using the impulse modeling, the constraining forces andtorques for applying to the virtual rigid body based on directions inwhich impulses are to be applied to the virtual rigid body.
 18. Themethod of claim 17, further comprising the least one controller: solvinga system of equations for determining scalar forces along each of thedirections in which the impulses are to be applied to the virtual rigidbody; and converting the scalar forces to the constraining forces andtorques acting in a virtual rigid body coordinate system.
 19. The methodof claim 18, further comprising the at least one controller calculatingthe constraining forces and torques based on: a Jacobian matrix; a massand inertia matrix for the virtual rigid body; and scale factors. 20.The method of claim 11, further comprising the at least one controlleradvancing the surgical instrument in the manual mode based on acommanded pose and a commanded velocity for the energy applicator.